A consolidated reply of experiences and examples shared by various members of the Solution Exchange Water Community
From Dara Johnston, United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF), New Delhi
Posted 23 April 2010
The public drinking water supply chain comprises the source, treatment plant, supply system and household storage. The current standards regime applies to water supply and treatment plants, leaving the other parts of the supply chain uncovered. To ensure that people get water that is of acceptable quality to drink, it is as important to maintain water quality at the household level as it is to ensure that supply point and treatment plants produce water to prescribed standards.
Studies show that most contamination takes place when it is stored at home. The quantity depends on many factors – the type of vessel, duration of storage, whether the vessel is covered, how water is extracted for drinking, how they are cleaned, etc.(Household drinking water in developing countries: a systematic review of microbiological contamination between source and point of use). Thus, even if the water supplied from the treatment plant or the source is free of germs, improper storage and use in houses negates the benefits of this treatment. Protecting the source of drinking water or treating water to certain standards is also of little use in this scenario.
This makes it imperative to have a viable way of treating water within the house before drinking. The same studies point to a very high percentage (40 per cent or more) reduction in the incidence of water-borne diseases if water is treated in houses before drinking or the storage conditions are improved (Faecal contamination of drinking water during collection and household storage: the need to extend protection to the point of use). The disinfection methods have to be cheap and simple for people to be able to use. It has to be effective enough to remove or neutralize the bacteria, especially E Coli, but leave the water fit to drink in terms of taste and dissolved minerals.
Treating water at the household level is more effective than conventional improvements in water supplies in ensuring the microbiological quality of drinking water at the point of consumption. This translates into improved health outcomes. In a systematic review of 15 intervention studies for the World Bank, Fewtrell and colleagues (2005) reported that household-based water treatment and safe storage was associated with a 35% reduction in diarrhoeal disease compared to a statistically insignificant 11% for conventional source-based interventions. A more recent and comprehensive Cochrane review covering more than 38 randomized, controlled trials and 53,000 people in 19 countries found that household-based interventions were about twice as effective in preventing diarrhoeal disease (47%) than improved wells, boreholes and communal stand pipes (27%). (Promotion Of Household Water Treatment And Safe Storage In UNICEF Wash Programmes)
Thus, HWTS is the final check to completely protect the water supply chain and effectively ensure the water quality does not deteriorate at the household level. Unfortunately, the issue of household storage and treatment of water gets attention only during disasters such as floods. While the problem is exacerbated during disasters, people need to a method that is usable year-round. The idea is to inculcate safe storage and treatment habits when there is no disaster so that people are able to handle their water quality problems better during disasters.
The other problem with water quality is people’s perceptions. A study (Water and Sanitation – A baseline survey; Indian Institute of Mass Communication) showed that people feel the water they fetch is considered clean by 77 per cent of people, muddy by 13 per cent and brackish by 2 per cent. In the absence of any scientific analysis of water quality, people think the water they drink is safe if it does not have harmful things they can perceive with their senses.
There have been several discussions on the Water Community of Solution Exchange. Members have suggested a wide range of water purification techniques that are useful at the household level. We have presented them below:
- Filtering and boiling water. Filtering removes suspended matter while boiling kills any disease-causing bacteria and is the most effective method to disinfect water. However, there are risks of subsequent recontamination if boiled water is not stored properly, and it is a very energy-intensive method, while filtration is effective only as long as the filtration medium works properly.
- Solar disinfection. This depends on the exposure to the sun and is a function of the intensity of solar radiation and length of exposure. However, sodis of water in plastic bottles can result in leachates from the plastic entering the water, which can have long-term health impacts. Glass bottles can solve this problem but are more expensive and difficult to come by.
- Using bleaching powder or chlorine tablets. This is a common method but attention has to be paid to the correct dosage to maintain residual chlorine levels.
- Using locally-made filters such as those produced by the rural sanitary marts in West Bengal, Dhan Foundation in Tamil Nadu and the matka filter in Gujarat . These filters are cheap to make and can get rid of most contaminants. However, their effectiveness decreases with time, they need to be cleaned regularly and are heavy, fragile and cannot be easily moved around.
- Pedal gen, that produces up to 1500 litres of water a day that is free of both chemical and biological contaminants. Mounted on a cycle, the system drives a pump that forces water through filters. More details are available at http://bio-envoir.com/Pedal-Gen.html
- Slow sand filtration. Suspended particulate matter is first removed by adding alum. The clarified water is passed through a slow sand filter. This filters out most bacteria and all other contaminants. Water quality from these filters have been tested and found suitable for drinking. However, the filters clog up and need careful maintenance. After maintenance, that involves removing the top layer of sand, it takes about a week for the filter to become effective again. More information is available here .
Other traditional methods
- Using seeds of the moringa oliefera tree (the drumstick tree). These are used to remove suspended particulate matter. It is also believed the addition of powdered seeds removes bacterial contamination but this is yet to be established through scientific studies
- Fuel wood ash, where ash is mixed with water, left to stand for 45 minutes and the water is decanted. This is a traditional method and its efficacy is yet to be scientifically proven
- Saree method, where a saree folded eight times is used to filter water. This is effective in removing large suspended solids and has been particularly effective in reducing guinea-worm infections. But it will be ineffective in removing faecal coliforms that cause other water-borne diseases.
- Vani, a traditional system followed by the Jain community, where ash from firewood and cow dung is mixed with water and kept in the sun for 45 minutes. It acts as a catalyst to kill bacteria. This again needs scientific validation.
The point to note clearly is HWTS has to be done in conjunction with water treatment along the entire supply chain, starting with source protection.
There are many organizations working on similar ways to purify water at the domestic level before drinking. We would like to develop a map and database of their activities. I request Community members to share:
- The location of the organization and person concerned with contact information
- Brief details of the method(s) developed or promoted for water purification, including cost, output and quality of water before and after treatment
Please note, we are looking for information on low-cost and/or traditional methods. We are not looking for commercial solutions marketed by private companies. If an NGO has developed a process and selling it at cost or even a modest profit, we would like to include it in the map. The map will help us identify potential water treatment methods that can be used across the country. The information will also be available on the India Water Portal for everybody to access.
Responses were received, with thanks, from
- Swati Sharma, Saviours, Meerut
- B. Sada Siva, DHAN Foundation, Hyderabad
- A. Khurshid Bhatti, Association for Humanitarian Development (AHD), Hyderabad , Pakistan
- Michael B. Lipman, South Asia Pure Water Initiative, Inc., USA (Response 1) (Response 2)
- Neelkanth Mishra, Freshwater Action Network South Asia, Hyderabad
- Vijay Malik, Aqua Tabs, New Delhi
- Samuel Luzi, Eawag, Duebendorf
- Ajit Seshadri, The Vigyan Vijay Foundation, New Delhi (Response 1) (Response 2)
- Artur Vakhitov, Ecoforum , Uzbekistan
- Kulwant Singh, United Nations Human Settlements Programme , Kenya
- S. Khuntiam, Institute of Minerals and Materials Technology, Bhubaneswar
- Pathak R Kripal, National Horticulture Mission , New Delhi
- Parimita Routray, Sphere India , Bhubaneswar
- Jagdish Barot, Windsor , Canada
- Namrata Pathak, Centre for Environmental Management of Degraded Ecosystems, New Delhi
- B. K. Sharma, Gwalior Children’s Charity, United Kingdom
- Uday Pathak, Udayan, Patna
- M Jahangir, Fresh Water Action Network South Asia, Pakistan
- Satya Sivaraman, Freelance Journalist, New Delhi
- Ilmari Saarilehto, United Nations Children’s Fund, Nepal
- M. Manoj Kumar, Development Alternatives, New Delhi
- Muhammad Mukhtar Alam, Centre for Ecological Audit, Social Inclusion and Government, Delhi
- Alka Singh, AMRITA, Allahabad
- Uday Pathak, Mahavir Vatsalya Aspatal, Patna*
- Vinod Joon, Indian Institute of Technology, Delhi*
- Kalyan Paul, Pan Himalayan Grassroots Development Foundation, Almora*
- R.Mohanasundar, Arghyam, Bangalore*
- Surendra Kumar Yadav, Institute of Environment Management, Vikram University , Ujjain*
- Nitya Jacob, United Nations Children’s Fund, New Delhi
- Sunderrajan Krishnan, INREM Foundation, Anand*
*Offline Contribution
Further contributions are welcome!
Summary of Responses
Household water treatment and storage is the last and most critical stage water passes through before it is drunk. Critical, because this is often the time when water is most exposed to contaminants. Thus, in addition to proper storage and handling at home, it is important to have treatment systems that can eliminate disease-causing pathogens in drinking water. Equally, these systems have to be affordable, both to buy and use, and process water just before drinking.
Water is contaminated by chemical and/or biological sources. Arsenic, fluoride, iron, other salts, pesticides, fertilizers and industrial pollutants are common types of chemical contaminants. Bacteria (E. Coli and faecal coliforms), guinea worms, cysts and animals or insects are common biological contaminants. These determine the sort of treatment systems that can render the water fit to drink.
There is a wide range of household water treatment systems. Based on responses from members, we have created a Google Map (you can see the map by visiting this link). This indicates which the systems that organizations have developed and are using. We have mapped only non-profit or government organizations, as the emphasis is on affordability. The range of commercial water treatment is much wider and often out of reach of the poor; they have not been included.
The most common type of HWT system is based on slow sand filters. These can be used for either individual or community level water treatment. The top of the filter has fine sand, and an inlet lets water in slowly on this layer. Through a complex biological process, this filter removes all bacteria; it also removes all floating material through simple filtration. The working on the filter is very well described in Slow Sand Filtration, a World Health Organisation publication, available at http://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/publications/ssf/en/index.html.
Other types of HWT systems are:
- Baked clay filtration disks made by rural sanitary marts in Purba Medinipur
- Nadi and matka filters in the Lower Sindh region of Pakistan
- Several technologies developed by the Bhabha Atomic Research Centre
- Chlorine tablets
- Solar disinfection
- The Kanchan Arsenic Filter being used in Nepal
- TERAFIL filtration disk
- Fluoride filters using broken bricks
- Silver nano-technology based filters
- Electrolysis of salt to release chlorine for disinfecting water
- Boiling water
- Bio-sand filters with iron nails for arsenic removal
- Jal Tara biosand filter
The majority of these are based on the concept of slow sand filtration, one relies on the disinfecting power of solar ultra-violet radiation and the others on chemical processes. Each HWT has its pros and cons, that are discussed in detail below. The map provides the information in visual form, with information about the problem and the contact of the organisation concerned. We would like you to continue adding to the map by sending us information on household water treatment systems being developed and used in different parts of India and elsewhere in the world.
Recommended Documentation
From Neelkanth Mishra, Freshwater Action Network South Asia, Hyderabad
A Guide To Water Filters And Water Treatment
Web page; by Heart Spring; 102 Briaridge Drive, F Turtle Creek, Pennsylvania 15145, USA;
Available at http://heartspring.net/water_filters_guide.html
Compares a wide range of treatments, ranging from low cost home-made carbon filters to high-end water ionizers
Expanding Water Purification Practices Among India's Poor
Presentation; by Deepak Saksena, Anurag Mishra, Camille Saade, Christian Winger, Reed Ramlow; AED Center for Private Sector Health Initiatives; USA;
Available at
http://www.tcpevents.co.uk/wsmc/downloads/breakouts/Monday/1610/International/A%20Mishra.pdf (PDF; Size: 923KB)
Provides a number of research models that are scalable and sustainable strategies, increasing use of POU water purification methods and devices amongst the poor in India
Proud Owner of Safe Drinking Water Device
Article; by Pratinidhi; Lucknow;
Available at http://www.pratinidhi.in/case/proud_owner.html
Describes how point of use water purification systems have helped the lives of slum dwellers in Lucknow
Does the reuse of PET bottles during solar water disinfection pose a health risk due to the migration of plasticisers and other chemicals into the water? (from Samuel Luzi, Eawag, Duebendorf)
Article; by Peter Schmid, Martin Kohler, Regula Meierhofer, Samuel Luzi, Martin Wegelin; Elsevier Water Research, 42, pp 5054-5060; 2008;
Available at
http://www.sodis.ch/methode/forschung/publikationen/papers/schmid_plasticiser_2008.pdf (PDF, 100 Kb)
Describes a study to ascertain the risks of transfer of organic substances to water from PET bottles used for Sodis. The study found these risks to be negligible
Decentralized Wastewater Management applying concept “Waste to Resource” – An overview of community initiatives in rural & urban sector (from Ajit Seshadri, The Vigyan Vijay Foundation, New Delhi ; response 1)
Document; by Ajit Seshadri; The Vigyan Vijay Foundation; New Delhi
Available at ftp://ftp.solutionexchange.net.in/public/wes/cr/res-24031001.doc (DOC; Size: 2.4MB)
Paper demonstrates the use of Decentralized Wastewater Treatment Systems approach to wastewater treatment is more effective than conventional approaches
Scaling up Kanchan Arsenic Filter for Safe Drinking Water in Arsenic-Affected Communities of Nepal (from Kulwant Singh, United Nations Human Settlements Programme , Kenya)
Document; by Andre Dzikus, Kulwant Singh, Bipin Dangol and Roshan Raj Shrestha
Available at ftp://ftp.solutionexchange.net.in/public/wes/cr/res-23041002.pdf (PDF; Size: 600KB)
Poster describes the arsenic filter and advocates its use in certain conditions. The Nepal government is using it in a project in the arsenic-affect districts of Nepal
Current Status of Water Crisis and Measure to Mitigate: 5-Fold Path Mission (from Pathak R Kripal, National Horticulture Mission , New Delhi)
Document; by Pathak R Kripal. National Horticulture Mission; New Delhi;
Available at ftp://ftp.solutionexchange.net.in/public/wes/cr/res-23041005.doc (DOC; Size: 100KB)
Describes how ash from agnihotras has been used to improve groundwater quality, providing an alternate way of doing so
Water Quality and Monitoring, Disaster Risk Reduction Unit (from Parimita Routray, Sphere India , Bhubaneswar)
Brochure; Indo-Global Social Service Society; New Delhi;
Available at ftp://ftp.solutionexchange.net.in/public/wes/cr/res-23041006.pdf (PDF; Size: 200KB)
Describes the use of the Kanchan arsenic filter in Assam's flood prone districts where groundwater has large concentrations of arsenic
Recommended Contacts and Experts
Mr. J Padmashri, Sri Lanka (from Jagdish Barot, Windsor , Canada )
Has developed a simple community-level arsenic filter using new bricks. These are put into a water tank and water passes through it. In the process, the bricks remove arsenic
Recommended Organizations and Programmes
From Swati Sharma, Saviours, Meerut
United Nations Children's Education Fund (UNICEF), New Delhi
73 Lodhi Estate, New Delhi 110003; Tel: 91-11-24690401; Fax: 91-11-24627521; newdelhi@unicef.org; http://www.unicef.org/media/media_53014.html
UN agency working with the government to improve drinking water quality at the household level
Ramakrishna Mission Lok Shiksha Parisha, West Bengal
PO Narendrapur, Kolkata, West Bengal 700103, India ; Tel: 91-33-24772207; Fax: 91-33-24772070; rkmwatsan@gmail.com; Contact: Chandi Charan Dey; Coordinator, Water and Sanitation;
This is a section of the Ramakrishna Mission that has pioneered household water and sanitation services in several districts of West Bengal
DHAN Vayalagam (Tank) Foundation, Tamil Nadu (from B. Sada Siva, DHAN Foundation, Hyderabad )
No. 17, Vellai Pillaiyar Koil Street, S. S. Colony, Madurai 625010, Tamil Nadu; Tel: 91-452-2601673; Fax: 91-452-2602247; dhantank@airtelbroadband.in;
http://www.dhan.org/vayalagam/biosand_filters.php; Contact J. Kanagavalli
Promotes a filter developed by Canadian engineers, which removes most pathogens from water, such as bacteria, protozoa and viruses found in drinking water
From A. Khurshid Bhatti, Association for Humanitarian Development (AHD), Hyderabad , Pakistan
Association for Humanitarian Development (AHD), Pakistan
House # 142/C, Block – D, Unit No 7, Latifabad, Hyderabad, Sindh, Pakistan; Tel: 92-22-3860880, 2933236; info@ahdpak.org; http://ahdpak.org/
The main objective of the AHD is to work for the peace, justice, harmony and equality of the marginalised. It also has a water testing laboratory to test water quality
Oxfam Great Britain , United Kingdom
Oxfam House, John Smith Drive , Cowley, Oxford , OX4 2JY , United Kingdom ; Tel: 44-1865-472602; enquiries@oxfam.org.uk.; http://www.oxfam.org.uk
Oxfam has helped develop and promote water testing kits in Pakistan to ensure drinking water quality in Sindh
South Asia Pure Water Initiative, Inc, USA (from Michael B. Lipman, South Asia Pure Water Initiative, Inc., USA ;response 1)
2832 Whitney Ave. Hamden , CT 06518 , USA ; Tel: 1-203-281-0747; info@sapwii.org; http://southasiapurewater.org/
South Asia Pure Water Initiative, Inc. supports a small factory about 60 miles east of Bangalore, India, to make Bio-Sand Water Filters
From Neelkanth Mishra, Freshwater Action Network South Asia, Hyderabad
Pratinidhi, Uttar Pradesh
636/34, Gazi Nagar, Takarohi, Mayawati Road, Indira Nagar, Lucknow 226016, Uttar Pradesh; Tel: 91-522-2711805; Fax: 91-522-2711805; pratinidhi1994@gmail.com; http://www.pratinidhi.in/; Contact Dr Mazhar A Rashidi; Tel: 91-9451913298
Pratinidhi is promoting use of Point of Use water purification methods among residents of 52 slums in Aliganj area of Lucknow regarding use of safe and hygienic drinking water
Bhabha Atomic Research Institute, Maharashtra
Trombay, Mumbai 400085, Maharashtra ; Tel: 91-22-25505050; Fax: 91-22-25505151; headttcd@barc.gov.in;http://www.barc.ernet.in
BARC has developed a slew of technologies for treating water from the community to the houselhold level that are available for transfer
From Vijay Malik, Aqua Tabs, New Delhi
Asian Institute of Technology , Thailand
P.O. Box 4 , Klong Luang, Pathumthani 12120 , Thailand ; Tel: 66-2-5245000, 66-2-5160110-44; Fax: 66-2-5162126; Helpdesk@ait.ac.th;
http://www.serd.ait.ac.th/academic/academic_programs/eem.php
The Asian Institute of Technology has a School of Environment , Resources and Development that researches issues pertaining to drinking water and sanitation
United States Agency for International Development (USAID), New Delhi
American Embassy, Chanakypuri, New Delhi 110021; Tel: 91-11-24198000 ; Fax: 91 -11-24198454; http://www.usaid.gov/in/about_usaid/overview.htm;
USAID works to conserve water resources, and promote clean technology, including those for providing clean drinking water
Medentech Ltd., New Delhi
B-3, Sector-5, Plot Number 6, Dwarka, New Delhi 110075; Tel: 91-9818386774;
vmalik@medentech.com; www.medentech.com
Company has manufactured effervescent disinfectant tablets for water purification which can be used to purify collected rainwater for drinking purposes
From Samuel Luzi, Eawag, Duebendorf
Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology , Switzerland
Eawag, Überlandstrasse 133, P.O. Box 611 , 8600 Dübendorf , Switzerland ; Tel: 41-448235511; Fax: 41-448235028; info@eawag.ch;
http://www.eawag.ch/medien/bulletin/20090819/index_EN;
The Institute has researched the process of using sunlight for disinfecting drinking water and has promoted this in several African and Asian countries
Indian Institute of Technology , Tamil Nadu
Indian Institute of Technology Madras, I.I.T. Post Office, Chennai 600036, Tamil Nadu; Tel: 91-44-22570694; Fax: +91-44-22570509; http://www.iitm.ac.in/; Contact Dr. M S Ananth; Director; Tel: 91-9444008001; ananth@iitm.ac.in
IIT Chennai has worked on the migration behaviour of chemicals in PET bottles into water during the SODIS process
University of Calcutta , West Bengal
1 Reformatory Street , Kolkata 700027, West Bengal ; Tel: 91-33-23206161; sodis.cu@gmail.com; Contact Prof Ishita Mukhopadhyay
The Centre has tried out SODIS in certain slums of Kolkata, as well as in Murshidabad, Joynagar and Sunderbans through NGOs and the state public health department
League for Education and Development, Tamil Nadu
8, First Street Rayar Thoppu, Srirangam, Tiruchirapalli 620006, Tamil Nadu; Tel: 91-431-2432803; Contact: Radha Natarajan; radha_lead@sify.com; radha_lead@rediffmail.com
The NGO is an Eawag partner and has implemented SODIS in the slum areas of Chennai and villages around Trichy along with the state slum clearance board
Assam University, Assam
Department of Ecology and Environmental Science, Assam University, Silchar 788011, Assam, India; Tel 91-384-227-0824; Contact: Abhik Gupta; abhik.eco@gmail.com
Has worked on solar disinfection issues in the north-eastern part of India for safe drinking water with Eawag
Guwahati Medical College, Assam
Dept. of Community Medicine, Guwahati Medical College, Guwahati 781032, Assam, India; Tel: 91-9864053346; http://gmchassam.gov.in; Contact Prof. Sajida Ahmed; ahmed_1949@rediffmail.com
The Guwahati Medical College is a premier medical research institute in North-east India and has worked on the health benefits of solar disinfection with Eawag
Tachis Rural Energy Society of Agartala, Tripura
Old Kalibari Lane , Krishnanagar, Agartala, Tripura , India ; Tel: 91-381-2320664; Contact Pramode Lal Gosh; plghosh@yahoo.co.in
The NGO, an Eawag partner, has promoted SODIS in the North-east state of Tripura, as part of an initiative with the Assam University , Silchar
The Vigyan Vijay Foundation, New Delhi
C-3 A/126 C, Janakpuri, New Delhi 110058; Tel: 91-9810248197; lipika.ahuja@vigyanvijay.org;http://vigyanvijay.org/project.htm
Has implemented several urban sanitation programmes and conducted research on how to re-orient existing strategies for different geographical regions
From Parimita Routray, Sphere India , Bhubaneswar
Indo-Global Social Service Society (IGSSS), New Delhi
Indo-Global Social Service Society, 28, Institutional Area, Lodi Road, New Delhi 110003; Tel: 91-11-45705000, 24692192; Fax: 91-11-24626259; ed@igsss.net ; http://igsss.org/; Contact Dr. Joseph Sebastian; Executive Director;
IGSSS works on disaster relief, health, livelihoods, human rights and governance issues with the poor, and has developed an arsenic filter for use in flood-affected areas
Rural Volunteers Centre (RVC), Assam
Post Office and Village Akajan, Via Silapathar, District Dhemaji 787059, Assam ; Tel: 91-3753-246306; Fax: 91-3753-246917; ruralvolunteerscentre@yahoo.co.in; Contact Mr. Ravindranath; NGO Leader; Tel: 91-9435089275
RVC’s works involves rescue, relief and rehabilitation of the flood-affected communities in upper Assam , covering around 400 villages
SPHERE India , New Delhi
Building No 3, Flat No Flat 302/3, Kaushilya Park, Hauz Khas, New Delhi 110016; Tel: +91-11-46070374; Fax: 91-11-46070379; info@sphereindia.org.in; http://www.sphereindia.org.in
This is a national coalition of humanitarian agencies in India . It facilitates inter-agency coordination, training, information, knowledge management and common advocacy
From Namrata Pathak, Centre for Environmental Management of Degraded Ecosystems, New Delhi
Aqua East Europe, The Netherlands
Münsterstraat 14, 7575 ED Oldenzaal, The Netherlands ; Tel: 31-541-531702; Fax: 31-541-530600; ldr@aquaesteurope.com;
AquaEst Europe, based in the Netherlands, is a specialist marketing and development company that supplies eco-friendly products to treat drinking water
Vitens Water Supply Company, The Netherlands
PO Box 1090 , 8200 BB Lelystad, The Netherlands; Tel: 31-582945594; relatiebeheer.lab@vitens.nl; http://www.vitens.nl
Vitens is the largest drinking water company in the Netherlands, supplying drinking water to the provinces of Friesland, Overijssel, Flevoland, Gelderland and Utrecht
Gwalior Children's Hospital Charity , United Kingdom(from B. K. Sharma)
Gwalior Childrens Hospital Charity, 14, Magdalene Road , Walsall, West Midlands WS13TA, United Kingdom ; Tel: 44-1922-629842; Fax: 44-1922-632942; Gwalior.Hospital@care4free.net; www.helpchildrenofindia.org.uk; Contact Dr. B K Sharma
The Charity runs a programme for integrated development in 40 villages in the surrounding area to include hygiene, sanitation, drinking water, education and health
From M. Manoj Kumar, Development Alternatives, New Delhi
Development Alternatives, New Delhi
111/9-Z, Kishangarh, Vasant Kunj, New Delhi 110070; Tel: 91-11-2613-4103; Fax: 91-11-2613-0817; tara@devalt.org; www.devalt.org
Promotes sustainable national development and livelihoods and can be contacted for support for water treatment plants for Bihar
Megh Pyne Abhiyan, Bihar
91-9810307445, 919973969616; graminunatti@gmail.com; Contact Mr. Eklavya Prasad
The Abhiyan aims at providing safe drinking water in several districts of North Bihar that are frequently affected by floods during the monsoons
Pan Himalayan Grassroots Development Foundation, Almora(from Kalyan Paul, Pan Himalayan Grassroots Development Foundation, Almora)
Post Bag # 3, Ranikhet 263 645, Almora District, Uttarakhand; Tel: 91-9412093286; kpaul@grassrootsindia.com; http://www.grassrootsindia.com/;
This voluntary organization promotes household water treatment in the central and western Himalayan states of Uttarakhand and Himachal Pradesh
Recommended Portals and Information Bases
Movement For Transforming Ecologically Hostile Urban Habitats, New Delhi (from Muhammad Mukhtar Alam, Centre for Ecological Audit, Social Inclusion and Government, Delhi)
http://transitionurbanindia.ning.com/
This is a space where citizens can share information on how to make urban habitats ecologically sustainable
Recommended Tools and Technologies
TERAFIL Red-Clay Filtration Disc (from S. Khuntiam, Institute of Minerals and Material Technology, Bhubaneswar)
This filter can be fitted on any household container to treat turbid water and has been found to remove 99% of turbidity and 95% of bacteria in water during filtration
From M. Manoj Kumar, Development Alternatives, New Delhi
Jal-TARA Biosand Filter at Household Level
Equipment; Owned by Development Alternatives, New Delhi.
Available at ftp://ftp.solutionexchange.net.in/public/wes/cr/res-23041007.doc
Available for downloading (DOC; Size: 700KB);
Jal-TARA water filter is a household level ‘Green technology’ works on the principle of gravity sand filtration employing of bio-mechanical advantage
Jal-TARA Biosand Filter at Household Level
Equipment; Owned by Development Alternatives, New Delhi.
Available at ftp://ftp.solutionexchange.net.in/public/wes/cr/res-23041008.doc. Available for downloading (DOC; Size: 2MB);
Jal-TARA water filter is a technology which works on the principle of gravity sand filtration by employing of bio-mechanical advantage
Jal-TARA Arsenic Filter
Equipment; Owned by Development Alternatives, New Delhi.
Available at ftp://ftp.solutionexchange.net.in/public/wes/cr/res-23041009.doc. Available for downloading (DOC; Size: 1.2MB);
Jal-TARA Arsenic Filter is an innovative Point of Use water purification system for removing arsenic, pathogens, iron and turbidity, from raw water
Related Consolidated Replies
Water purification technologies for flood-affected Bihar, from G Padmanabhan, UNDP, New Delhi (Experiences; Referrals). Disaster and Water Communities, Solution Exchange, India,
Issued 09/09/2008. Available at http://www.solutionexchange-un.net.in/drm/cr/cr-se-drm-wes-01090801-fullcr.pdf(PDF,367KB)
Recommendations on techniques for purifying water in disaster-affected areas ranging from household remedies, free solutions, to those offered by large companies
Swati Sharma, Saviours, Meerut
I have seen the domestic water filters manufactured by Rural Sanitary Marts in Purva Medinipur for use in areas where the ground water has a high concentration of iron. The sanitary mart promoted by the Rama Krishna Mission Lok Shiksha Parishad, UNICEF, and the Government of West Bengal manufactures water filters that can remove iron, a common problem in this area. Each filter costs Rs 300 and can last several years. It is made of cement and can be used in houses or schools.
The system uses a baked clay filtration disc that is cemented into the bottom of the top chamber. It costs around Rs 20 and is made at a RSM in Purulia. The filter produces around 10 litres per minute. For cleaning, the disc has to be backwashed and scrubbed.
I am not aware of the water quality before filtration, but after filtration it is below the permissible limits.
B. Sada Siva, DHAN Foundation, Hyderabad
DHAN Foundation, is a grassroots development organization working towards bringing significant changes among rural / urban / tribal / coastal communities. We are working on drinking water issues by supplying the Biosand Filters at Household level to the needy communities. The details of Biosand filters are as follows:
Biosand Filter
The most common and widespread health risk associated with drinking-water is microbial contamination; the diseases caused by contaminated water remain one of the major sources of disease for children and cause of considerable expenses in households. To avoid this, water purification at household is essential. Bio Sand Filter technology is a low cost slow sand water filter, specifically designed for intermittent use at household level. Bio sand filter is one of the cheap and cost effective technologies to remove biological contaminations. The filter is essentially a rectangular, concrete box, filled with carefully graded layers of sand.
There are lots of options available at community as well as household level water treatment. The main reason for introducing this household water treatment option is:
- Less expensive
- Faster to implement
- User control, easy to operate and maintain if you have operation and maintenance knowledge
- Made of locally available materials
For further details, can visit:
http://www.dhan.org/vayalagam/biosand_filters.php
A. Khurshid Bhatti, Association for Humanitarian Development (AHD), Hyderabad , Pakistan
Interesting to see House Hold Water treatment systems information. Association for Humanitarian Development (AHD) is non-profit organization working in Lower Sindh rural Thatta, Hyderabad and Badin districts and promoting safe drinking water filter local named Nadi filter unit Nadi filter method adopted from Bio-Sand filter been used all over the world and many of the organizations national or international are still working on this. The Nadi filter unit is so simple in design and manufacture. It is made from mud pots (Nadi & Mattka). The Nadi size is 30-32 inches and the small Mattka is about 20 liters.
The Nadi filter is designed to remove biological contamination and has successfully removed fecal coliforms and viruses. It is being promoted in more than 3,500 families over the past two years. Its results are amazing and people do not get sick due to gastro-intestinal diseases and diphtheria is they use this Nadi filter in their houses.
AHD has established a water testing lab with support from Oxfam GB and now randomly tests the water from these filters regularly to monitor water quality. The families have installed the filter and have been taught how to keep them safe by maintaining them. Their water is almost completely free of disease-causing organisms. Even where the units are not well-maintained, the water is up to 75% cleaner than untreated water.
In rural areas, communities drink canal water. This is very turbid and contaminated. Some of water tests results of canal water show biological contamination 200 to 350 fecal coli form per litre, which is very high and the Nadi filter removes successfully 96% to 100% of these bacteria.
Michael B. Lipman, South Asia Pure Water Initiative, Inc., USA (response 1)
We are an American based NGO involved with manufacturing and distributing Bio-sand filters from our workshop in Kolar, Karnataka for nearly five years. We have developed stewardship programs for villages that are packaged with the delivery and installation of the filters.
A community steward is a village resident who we train and is given a monthly stipend for a year. They learn about basic water hygiene and sanitation and maintenance of the bio-sand filters at a monthly meeting held at our workshop in Kolar. They are required to visit with each user monthly to answer questions and disseminate information about proper handling and storage of filtered water. The stewards share information about problems and solutions from their villages with the other stewards attending. Most of the stewards are women and members of one of the village self-help groups. They are invested in the success of the clean water development program and are motivated to affect a positive outcome.
We are also working on stewardship programs for slums and schools. For schools our concept is to get the children involved by forming a water club with a water “minister” and assistants. The children learn about water sanitation and hygiene along with the science of the bio-sand filter. They monitor the proper use and function of the filter and teach the other children what they have learned.
In slums, filter distribution is divided into blocks. A steward is assigned to each block and is responsible for a certain number of filters in that block. Their education is similar to the village stewards.
The bio-sand filter is an inexpensive and effective point of use water filter. Its success is however, it contingent on a thoughtful plan of delivery that includes a program of water hygiene and sanitation. These soft costs need to be included in any bio-sand filter development project.
Neelkanth Mishra, Freshwater Action Network South Asia, Hyderabad
Household level water security is closely linked with ensuring quality of water. Awareness on pure and safe drinking water is increasing for last few years and it has to be put under framework of "Right to water".
Some private sector operator and NGO with support of Private sector have initiated water quality monitoring and supply at household level. like Pratinidhi – a Lucknow based organistaion have gradually evolved as a technical support and grassroots facilitation agency in areas of safe drinking water at household level in slum area of UP. Pratinidhi is working on Safe Drinking Water issues for the past three years. They are currently implementing POU project - “Operation Jal Mitra” (Friends of water) in 480 slum clusters of Lucknow city and POU-Zinc in 4 district of UP. POUZN) Project, which reduces diarrhea-related child mortality and morbidity by promoting the increased use of two effective strategies: preventing diarrhea through point-of-use (POU) water disinfection and treating diarrhea with zinc and ORS. Pratinidhi aims to convert this intervention in a full-fledged long term approach to ensure the regular delivery system of POU methods by promoting and distributing various POU products to the urban poor. For Operation Jal Mitra, In addition, they have selected and trained a cadre of 100 Micro Distributors (Jal Mitra) to implement the project. These Jal Mitra (almost all of whom are women) promote POU water purification methods and devices to urban poor households through water testing events and door to door visits. The Jal Mitra is remunerated through sale of various POU products through Samip India- their Micro finance and social marketing wing.
Bhabha Atomic research institute has also developed different technologies that they are seeking to address Household level water quality issue. The DAE-CSIR program envisages deployment of technologies developed by their labs in a reliable and sustainable manner to achieve water quality security. The implementation involves synergistic participation of DAE-CSIR laboratories, executing agencies and users each with financial contribution and commitment to ensure self-sustenance preferably with a multiplier effect. This technologies developed by DAE & CSIR are available at the website and are available for technology transfer to entrepreneurs on a chargeable basis. For setting up and sustaining the facility, Public Private Partnership may also be considered.
Some interesting and useful links can be accessed at:
http://heartspring.net/water_filters_guide.html
http://www.tcp-events.co.uk/wsmc/downloads/breakouts/Monday/1610/International/A%20Mishra.pdf
http://www.pratinidhi.in/case/proud_owner.html
http://www.barc.ernet.in/technologies/eoi/watertechindex.htm
Vijay Malik, Aqua Tabs, New Delhi
I am providing information on NGO lead HWTS multi-product programmes using Aquatabs water purification tablets. (As it happens Aquatabs is the world’s largest selling brand for HWTS amongst lowest income groups).
In India , NGO’s and social marketing organisation are using hybrid commercial models to provide Aquatabs to vulnerable people at very affordable prices, 1 Rs for 10L/20L tablets. These NGO’s and social marketing organisation engage in community-wide education programs and demonstrations. This information is given with a view to generating long-term sustained uptake.
Our programs are underway nationwide including,
- AED NGO/SHG lead programme in 800 slums and 1300 rural villages in U.P reaching around 2 million people.
- PSI lady health worker program in Mumbai slums reaching 500,00 people.
- Path rural safe water program in U.P. villages reaching around 400,000 people.
- Aid matrix safe water program lead by local NGO & youth organisation in Imphal.
- Village health worker program in 80 villages of Rajasthan.
We have programs in some parts of Karnataka, Hyderabad , TN. We are planning to start programs on HWTS in some parts of Gujarat , AP & U.P. with aim of educating 3 million people about HWTS.
The Asian institute of technology carried out a extended placebo control field trial in the slums of Dhaka Bangladesh . The trial showed a 65% reduction in diarrhoea amongst children using Aquatabs v/s the control group. Often the start up advertising phase of these sustainable programs are funded by international agencies like USAID with whom Aquatabs has an international MOU.
A very significant hidden success of these programmes is the surge in uptake which occurs when a crisis situation such as floods or cholera out breaks arises. In these situation even when the routine uptake is low, uptake during the crisis becomes community-wide. Simply, the whole community take action to prevent sickness.
Aquatabs is happy to receive partnership enquiry from NGO’s/aid agencies for HWTS programs in India. You may visitwww.aquatabs.in for more information.
Samuel Luzi, Eawag, Duebendorf
Eawag (the Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology) has been involved in several projects to promote household water treatment and safe storage (HTWS), with a focus on solar water disinfection (SODIS: www.sodis.ch), in India. In total, about one million people have been trained in the application of SODIS. Uptake has been variable, depending on target areas, promotion approaches, and availability of PET bottles. Uptake was greatest (>50%) in areas where bottles are widely available, or where some kind of bottle sourcing system was established. Distribution of free bottles is not recommended, as this creates expectations and dependencies which can greatly affect the long term sustainability of SODIS use.
Some considerations:
Cost: Many people can access used bottles for free, especially in urban areas. Used bottles (1-2l) may also be sold, usually for 1-2 Rupees, possibly more expensive in remote areas. New bottles cost 5-6 Rupees. Due to scratching and the slightly ‘milky’ surface bottles develop when exposed to the sun for a long time, bottles should be replaced every 4-6 months. Costs per liter of treated water thus is in the range of 0 (collected bottles) - 0.01 (bought used bottles) - 0.033 Rupees (bought new bottles).
Disinfection efficiency: The efficiency of SODIS has been studied extensively (for publications, see http://www.sodis.ch/methode/forschung/publikationen/index_EN). SODIS decreases pathogen concentrations by a factor 99.9-99.999 for bacteria, and 99-99-99 for viruses. SODIS also effectively removes Giardia, while other resistant protozoa require longer exposure time (10h for Cryptosporidium oocysts) or high temperatures (50ºC for one hour for amoeba). Before/after water quality test are done routinely in the SODIS projects mentioned below, either with a Delagua field test kit, or with H2S vials. Storage of treated water in the bottles also offers protection against re-contamination.
Safety of re-using PET bottles for SODIS: Concerns about re-using PET bottles or exposing them to the sun have been circulated through hoax e-mails (http://www.miricommunity.net/viewtopic.php?f=24&t=2422) falsely citing respected research institutions. There is no scientific evidence indicating that chemicals are indeed leaching into water stored in PET bottles in dangerous quantities resulting in adverse health effects. The Swiss Federal Laboratories for Material Science and Technology (http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18929387) and the IIT Chennai (see attached certificate) have analyzed the migration behavior of plasticizers and other organic counpoundy into water during the SODIS process. Concentrations in water after treatment were well below WHO drinking water guideline values.
Promotion of HWTS: While SODIS appears to be a good solution for many people to increase their level of safe water consumption, so are other technologies like ceramic filters, biosand filters or chlorination. SODIS has certain advantages in terms of cost-effectiveness, and can be applied independently of supply chains for products (except bottles), but is not ideal in certain situations (e.g. for people who have no access to a place that receives 6h of direct sunlight, or in areas where water is very turbid). We believe that the best way to increase safe water consumption through HWTS is to run campaigns that aim to convince people to improve the quality of their drinking water, and provide information about different HWTS options from which users can select the most suitable one, while simultanously increasing private sector involvment to improve the availability of low cost HWTS systems (integrated HWTS promotion).
Following an overview of SODIS projects in India:
West Bengal:
Target areas: Kolkata slums, Murshidabad, Joynagar, Sundarban
Promotion framework: through local NGOs and through West Bengal State Public Health Department: community health workers (Murshidabad district)
Project coordination:
Womens Studies Research Center
University of Calcutta
Prof. Ishita Mukhopadhyay
1 Reformatory Street , Kolkata - 700027,
West Bengal
India
phone: +91 33 2320 6161
e-mail: sodis.cu@gmail.com
Tamil Nadu:
Target areas: urban slums in Chennai, rural districts around Trichy
Promotion framework: Chennai: local NGOs, coordinated with the Tamil Nadu State Slum Clearance Board; rural areas: federations of self-help groups
Project coordination:
League for Education and Development, LEAD
Radha Natarajan
8, First Street Rayar Thoppu,
Srirangam, Tiruchirapalli 620 006
Tamil Nadu , India
phone: +91 (0) 431 243 2803
e-mail: radha_lead@sify.com; radha_lead@rediffmail.com
Delhi
Target areas: urban slums
Promotion framework: local NGOs
Project coordination:
Development Alternatives
Mr. Manoj Kumar
C/o TARA Nirman Kendra
29 Ghittorni, Near NBCC Complex
New Metro Station, MG Road
New Delhi-110030
phone: +91 11 26806172, 26801521, 26804482, ext: 129
e-mail : mkumar@devalt.org
www.devalt.org
Other experts with experience in SODIS promotion in India:
Assam:
Department of Ecology and Environmental Science
Assam University
Prof. Abhik Gupta
Silchar 788011
Assam , Northeast India
phone: +91 384 227 0824
e-mail: abhik.eco@gmail.com
Guwahati Medical College , Dept. of Community Medicine
Prof. Sajida Ahmed
Guwahati Medical College (GMC)
Guwahati - 781032
India
phone: +91 986 405 3346
e-mail: ahmed_1949@rediffmail.com
Tripura:
Tachis Rural Energy Society of Agartala (TRESA)
Pramode Lal Gosh
Old Kalibari Lane , Krishnanagar
Agartala, Tripura , India
phone: +91 381 232 0664
e-mail: plghosh@yahoo.co.in
Ajit Seshadri, The Vigyan Vijay Foundation, New Delhi (response 1)
The Vigyan Vijay Foundation, implements Environmental projects on Rain Harvesting, Waste Water Treatment-Recycling and for Re-use, composting of bio-wastes, and spreading eco-literacy in communities.
In the last 9 years since the inception of our NGO, we have implemented 9 WWT systems using natural bio-remediation methods, and also the water has been reused for irrigating plantation and other lower-end uses.
We furnish a detailed paper giving the details to apprise members most aspects, to gain knowledge on the WWT- systems being conceptualized as DEWATS- systems. We give this information as a lot of issues crop-up if WWT is done effectively. Hence it is best achieved if once used water is optimized by usage in lower-end consumers Etc. For irrigating plants, flushing toilets, good drinking water is not used. We would like more members to opt for usage of once used water for lower-end uses, etc. Please read more at ftp://ftp.solutionexchange.net.in/public/wes/cr/res-24031001.doc (DOC; Size: 2.62MB)
Approaches to DEWATS- Systems and adaptations by Vigyan Vijay:
Details of 9 systems implemented in capacities 300 to 60,000 Litres per day are as below:
(Name, location, project type, design flow, process, inflow sourced, quality, quantity, outflow, use of remedied water - area of irrigated land, other purposes Etc.)
- MCD Nursery, Vasant Vihar, Delhi: WWT 50 KLD, Anaerobic, aerobic with bio-remediation, Inflow at 50 KL & 350 BOD, producing 45 KL Re-use water & 30 BOD, for 25,000 Sq. m - greens
- Centre for Science & Environment, Institution: WWT 10 KLD, Anaerobic, aerobic bio-phyto-remediation, 10 KL/300 BOD, out- flow 8 KL/20 BOD, 1,500 Sq. m – greens, flush for toilets
- IIT-Delhi : WWT 10 KLD, anaerobic with bio-phyto-remediation, 10 KL/200 BOD, 8 KL/20 BOD, 3,000 Sq.m – greens and water for floor cleaning at canteen- mess and research purposes.
- Scindia School , Gwalior : WWT 15 KLD, anaerobic with bio-phyto-remediation, Inflow 15 KL/300 BOD, out-flow 12KLD/20 BOD, 2,000 Sq.m – greens and flush water for toilets, floor cleaning.
- Residential Home, Sec-54, Gurgaon: WWT 300 LPD, anaerobic with bio-phyto-remediation, Grey water Inflow 300 Lit per day/200 BOD, outflow 250 Lit per day / 30 BOD irrigating 80 Sq. m house garden, spray- fountains, rock-garden, lily-pond Etc.
- Mehtab Bagh off Taj Mahal, Agra : WWT 60 KLD, anaerobic with bio-phyto-remediation, Inflow 60 KL/200 BOD, out-flow 55KLD/30 BOD, for 30,000 Sq.m – agriculture , vegetable farms,
- Annamaye Ashram, Kasauni: WWT 60 KLD, anaerobic, bio-phyto-remediation, Inflow 60 KL/300 BOD, 50KLD/30 BOD, irrigating 30,000 Sq.m – agriculture farms, development of pond.
- Regency Park , High-rise flats, Residential complex, Gurgaon: WWT 15 KLD, anaerobic with bio-phyto-remediation, In 15 KL/300 BOD, 13KLD/30 BOD, irrigating 5,000 Sq.m – Horti-culture
- 3-star Hill Resort, RamNagar- Nainital cottage homes: GWT 3 KLD, anaerobic with bio-phyto-remediation, In 3 KL/300 BOD, out - 2.5 KLD 30 BOD, for 1,000 Sq.m – Horti-culture, pond.
Other initiatives done by The Vigyan Vijay Foundation using DAFUS- Decentralised Approach for Rural and Urban Services are given in brief as below:
Rain-Storm water management: At certain sites old dug wells have been deployed for rain-harvesting for recharging of groundwater. These old village dug-wells are dried up due to depletion of ground-water tables. They have proven to be very useful in conveying rain water to ground water regimes. This is especially true for institutions located at low-lying areas where rain-water harvesting has been very useful in avoiding flooding, etc.
Pond- cleanup with remediation: This has also been done for enhancing rain-water conveyance and effluent streams from village homes/habitat are remedied using DEWATS before its entry into the village pond at the down-stream. For instance, certain institutional campuses are adopting water-initiatives under the guidance of The Foundation, such as the TATA Chemicals Township, Babrala, UP, Anand Group of Companies, Gurgaon, etc.
Solid waste management: Several interventions have been initiated and all waste is handled and safely disposed off. Bio-wastes are composted to make manure while non bio-wastes are led on the re-cycling mode. Also has experience in kitchen- waste from a girl’s hostel is led for feeding in biogas plant. This yields biogas for energy and compost-manure as bio-fertilizer.
Ecological sanitation-WLUs: Eco-San approaches have been practiced, in association with IIT-Delhi on development and implementation of waterless urinals-WLUs, and urine used as manure in research farms on plants, trees and some energy-plants.
Artur Vakhitov, Ecoforum , Uzbekistan
Thanks for the interesting methods of water purification. The Ecoforum of NGO's is not engaged in the production of filters and equipments for water purification. We teach communities (especially rural) to use locally available tools for cleaning, disinfecting and desalinating water to the maximum extent possible. This is especially true for rural residents of arid zones in developing countries, nomads and low-income communities. In addition to the methods (below) we can add the use of substances such as silver, adsorbents (white clay and others) and freezing. These methods are described in our manual "Ecological safety of the family and the Environment.
Kulwant Singh, United Nations Human Settlements Programme , Kenya
I am attaching a poster giving information relating to a filter being used in Nepal , called the Kanchan Arsenic Filter. The cost of the filter to the household is approximately USD 15. You can view the poster at ftp://ftp.solutionexchange.net.in/public/wes/cr/res-23041002.pdf (PDF, 620 Kb)
S. Khuntiam, Institute of Minerals and Materials Technology, Bhubaneswar
The baked clay filter disc described earlier was actually invented by me in 1996 and first implemented in large scale in Orissa after the super cyclone in the state in 1999. We have given a trade name: TERAFIL water filtration disc. This TERAFIL water filter was sent to the Massachusetts Institute of Technology through UNICEF, New Delhi , for testing. Unfortunately, our technology was copied and propagated in Nepal first.
However as we are a premier national R&D laboratory of the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research of the Government of India, this technology has been licensed to more than 100 entrepreneurs as per the Government of India guidelines. Many point-of-use and water purification systems have been developed by us based on the TERAFIL disc. Their capacities range from one litre per hour to 100,000 litres per day at present. They have been widely propagated in many parts of the country and several hundred thousand Terafil water filters are in operation. For benefit of common people and small entrepreneurs, the one time license fee is reduced to Rs.15, 000/- only.
Additionally, it is being widely disseminated under the Bharat Nirman and Jalamani programmes of the Government at present. The brochure of TERAFIL technology available at ftp://ftp.solutionexchange.net.in/public/wes/cr/res-23041003.pdf (PDF, 870 Kb) is attached for your reference.
Pathak R Kripal, National Horticulture Mission , New Delhi
Many thanks for highlighting the water problem in Tamil Nadu. We have a mission called the Five Fold Path Mission that has a unique technique to mitigate the water crisis. It is the simple technique with little investment but requires a group of dedicated people. A copy of the approach is available at ftp://ftp.solutionexchange.net.in/public/wes/cr/res-23041005.doc (Word, 100 Kb).
Parimita Routray, Sphere India , Bhubaneswar
With regard to the discussion, I would like to share with community members that Indo Global Social Service Society (IGSSS), as part of its Disaster Risk Reduction work, has launched Technical Support for the Construction of the Kanchan Arsenic Filter and Water quality and Monitoring and Management Unit in Assam 's North Lakhimpur and Dhemaji districts. This initiative would ensure access to quality water for households exposed to multiple contaminants. More information can be accessed from the brochure attached (ftp://ftp.solutionexchange.net.in/public/wes/cr/res-23041006.pdf, PDF, 200 Kb).
Similarly, Rural Volunteers Centre (RVC) in Assam 's Dhemaji district has introduced the traditional sand filter system in the flood prone villages. A study conducted on the utility of sand filters has come up with a finding that sand filters have reduced water-borne diseases by more than 80 per cent. Recently, Sphere India has come up with a compendium of good practices in Community based Disaster Risk Reduction, and one of the practices included in the compendium is RVC's Sand filter.
Jagdish Barot, Windsor , Canada
While working for tsunami relief in Sri Lanka , I came across fluoride removal filters being used at the community level. It is a simple device using pieces of new bricks. The tank (usually round) is filled with fresh brick pieces and water is passed through them to bring fluoride concentration down to the potable range. The bricks are changed every three months and it works well.
Those interested may contact J. Padmashiri at Kandy , Sri Lanka (padmasiri100@yahoo.com) for further details.
Namrata Pathak, Centre for Environmental Management of Degraded Ecosystems, New Delhi
I have come across a handy filter unit, based on Silver nano-technology, for households, by AquaEst Europe Plation products (The Netherlands). These are specially manufactured ceramic balls coated with colloidal silver form the core of all Plation products. This silver disinfection technology has been successfully tested by certified laboratories in Mexico and fully approved by the Mexican Ministry of Health and complies with the WHO Guidelines and requirements of the US Environmental Protection Agency.
In the Netherlands tests have been carried out with rooftop-harvested rainwater and public water by C-Mark Water Consultants and Water Laboratory of Vitens Water Supply Company. The results prove Plation products fulfill the Dutch Drinking Water standard and WHO Guidelines for E-coli bacteria (<1/100ml), preventing bacterial growth and preserving stored drinking water over long periods, keeping it safe and also, equally important, tasting well (not stale).
For more details/ description log onto http://www.aquaestinternational.com
B. K. Sharma, Gwalior Children’s Charity, United Kingdom
We use chlorine tablets or boiling to purify drinking water in our project areas. We undertake integrated development work in 43 villages and slums in and around Gwalior . This includes promoting hygiene, sanitation, safe drinking water, health care, education, awareness and income generation. We also wanted to promote the use of moringa seeds for purifying drinking water and also improving nutrition levels, but could not get any support.
Uday Pathak, Udayan, Patna
Another method is electrolysis of a salt solution to release chlorine for disinfection. A simple device is a small 1.5 volt solar circuit, with the electrodes dipped in a glass of dilute salt solution. This releases chlorine that disinfects the water. It also reduces the salinity in the water. Distilled water can be made from solar collectors for which many designs are available. There are some that can be made at home as well. Another old practice is to add a copper coin into an earthenware pot; the copper ions are supposed to kill bacteria but this needs scientific examination.
M Jahangir, Fresh Water Action Network South Asia, Pakistan
I would recommend a bio-sand filter to purify well water with high iron content. The use of indigenous plants that has evolved with the area may be either beneficial or hazardous and needs scientific evaluation.
Michael B. Lipman, South Asia Pure Water Initiative, Inc., USA (response 2)
Our filter is a modification of the bio-sand water filter which we make in Kolar, Karnataka with a concrete casing rather than plastic. This plastic filter has a combination of rusty nails and brick pieces above the diffuser. This modification was developed by a team from MIT university who did a study of the effectiveness of the bio-sand filter in Nepal several years ago and is very effective in areas where arsenic is a water contaminant. The plastic container is suitable for mountainous terrain where heavier, concrete models are more difficult to transport.
We have modified the concrete model’s diffuser to accommodate the nails and brick pieces with success. The nails and brick pieces must be replenished periodically because they get saturated with arsenic and lose their effectiveness.
Satya Sivaraman, Freelance Journalist, New Delhi
I share with you an article on household treatment and storage of water.
Keeping Bacteria at Bay, Kerala Style
Ajith Lawrence and Satya Sivaraman
Trivandrum : Ask for plain drinking water in any roadside restaurant in the southern Indian province of Kerala and what you will get is a steaming hot, fragrant, golden brown colored liquid that not only quenches your thirst but adds a spring to your step too.
Even more significantly, for the past two decades or so this simple practice of serving boiled water with medicinal herbs has helped Kerala drastically cut down incidence of diarrheal diseases and a variety of other water-borne infections.
The efficacy of this concoction, based on both modern and traditional wisdom rests on the fact that it comes almost free of charge and is voluntarily adopted by the population.
Though the benefits and impact of this practice, used at homes, hotels and other public food distribution points are still being studied, the preliminary results are quite impressive.
According to official statistics of communicable diseases, in the 14 districts of the province from 2000 - 2007, deaths due to acute watery diarrhea - a major water-borne hazard in much of India - were less than
15 a year. This is extremely low compared to the average 1600 deaths that take place around India on a daily basis due to diarrhea.
According to the World Bank an estimated 21 percent of all communicable diseases in India are due to poor quality water alone.
“ There is no doubt that the traditional practice of serving boiled water, prevalent all over Kerala, has played a key role in preventing spread of many communicable diseases, particularly diarrhea,’ says Dr P.K. Soman, a senior doctor and public health expert in Trivandrum, capital city of the province.
The choice of boiled water over plain water is common sense of course, as heating water continuously for more than 20 minutes is medically known to kill most harmful bacteria. The trick however lies in ensuring that people actually implement this precaution in a country where less than 60 percent of the population has access to safe drinking water of any kind.
In Kerala not only has this been achieved, but in a manner that does not require either any regulatory measures or subsidies on part of the government. Serving hot herbal water routinely at homes, hotels and other venues has become the norm and almost a cultural practice.
“This practice of drinking hot water has evolved among the people on its own due to increasing consciousness about health,” says Dr. K Jagatheesan, a senior government health official.
Some doctors however believe that information about benefits of boiling drinking water probably goes back to some colonial era health administrator’s intervention over a century ago. The use of traditional medicinal herbs with water is a more recent innovation and quite understandable given Kerala’s reputation as the ancient land of ayurveda, the ancient Indian system of medicine. Traditional medical systems have a flourishing practice in the province attracting people from all over India and even abroad for treatment.
Among other benefits the addition of herbs makes the hot water palatable and gives it a flavour that ensures people actually use it.
The herbs include cumin seeds, holy basil, caringali and ramachham, all commonly found in Kerala.
What is even more impressive about the practice of serving hot water is that no hotel or restaurants charge any money for providing it, despite having to spend on fuel for heating and procuring herbs.
“I spend 250 rupees (US$5) every day on fuel wood to prepare the boiled water for my customers,” says Ravi Menon, owner of a small roadside restaurant on the outskirts of Trivandrum . Asked why he is willing to spend his money on preparing boiled water when he can make money by selling bottled mineral water Menon retorts, ‘ that will not be acceptable to our customers’.
The role of boiled herbal water in lowering diarrheal deaths in Kerala is clear also from the fact that an estimated 70 percent of the province’s population depends on open wells, rivers and streams for their water supply. Bacterial contamination is obviously likely to be high in such open sources, despite which because of using boiled water incidence of water-borne diseases is relatively low.
Some researchers argue that the reasons for lower incidence of water-borne bacterial diseases in Kerala are more complex and probably liked to other factors also such as high rates of literacy, public awareness of health issues and also very importantly the successful spread of modern toilets everywhere.
Under the ‘Total Sanitation’ campaign, initiated by the federal health agencies and implemented by the Kerala government since 1987 there have been vast improvements in the access to flush toilets, clearance of waste from public areas and prevention of water contamination.
“In Kerala people do not prefer the common sanitary facilities and instead use individual houses with separate toilets. Hence 96% of the houses in the province have toilet facilities,” says Dr.Vijayakumar, Professor at the Department of Community Medicine, Medical College , Trivandrum .
Well water is contaminated through air and from the single leach pit of the traditional toilets in the local areas. But such contamination is now less in the new generation toilets in the urban areas compared to old and single leach pit toilets.
“While more studies are required, the practice of drinking boiled water offers an easy-to-implement and cost-effective model of disease prevention for much of India and other developing countries,” says Dr Soman.
To that one can only say ‘Cheers!’ and raise a toast to the health of all those who help keep this unique practice still alive and kicking in Kerala.
Ilmari Saarilehto, United Nations Children’s Fund, Nepal
As Michael Lipman mentioned we have been promoting Bio-Sand filters with iron nails for arsenic removal for quite a long time in Nepal , almost 10 years now. The results are mixed, the filters are effective and generally well accepted but training the users on the use and maintenance is essentially important for sustained use. Also awareness raising on the health impacts of arsenic contamination is important to motivate people to filter their water. The problems perceived by users with the filters include:
- relatively low flow rate (10-20 litre per hour),
- maintenance, especially periodic cleaning of the nails, washing of sand and replacement of nails is often not done properly, and
- filters brake relatively easily (plastic filters brake around the places where the pipes come through the bucket and the concrete ones often crack).
I have worked with arsenic issues in Nepal in Finnish WASH project, an NGO project and now in UNICEF for about 3, 5 years now. The Finnish projects promote concrete filters and UNICEF and government mainly plastic ones. Both have their pros and cons. Plastic filters are lighter and cheaper, but brake more easily. Whereas, the concrete filters can be produced locally, even in communities by training local masons and are more robust, but heavier and more expensive.
One of the current WASH projects working in Far-Western Nepal has developed new very robust model of filter as a longer term solution. I have production manual for those interested and also technical details of the plastic filters.
Also, UNICEF Nepal has promoted other household water-treatment methods and conducted extensive studies on acceptability and use of different methods (SODIS, chlorination, filtration, boiling). I can send reports on these for those interested.
M. Manoj Kumar, Development Alternatives, New Delhi
I am glad to forward some basic information on various filters which we have developed and installed in various places for safe drinking water. Filters are of two types-P-O-U/HWTS and Community based. We are running water enterprises using these water purification systems in Bundelkhand. I will elaborate more on it-the concept and model later.
We have also developed Arsenic and Fluoride removal systems. Arsenic-we are testing at Khagaria in Bihar with Meghpyne Abhiyan and Fluoride in Jaipur-Ranwal with Vishakha. Please get in touch with my colleagues Mr. Pramod Kumar and Mr. Prasad on these. They will be available at 011-26806172. Also visit the links for more details on
- Jal-TARA Biosand Filter at Household Level, ftp://ftp.solutionexchange.net.in/public/wes/cr/res-23041007.doc
- Jal-TARA water filter at Community level, ftp://ftp.solutionexchange.net.in/public/wes/cr/res-23041008.doc
- Jal -TARA Arsenic Filter, ftp://ftp.solutionexchange.net.in/public/wes/cr/res-23041009.doc
Ajit Seshadri, The Vigyan Vijay Foundation, New Delhi (response 2)
Proceeding further from Ms. Namrata Pathak's excellent notings, we wish to add as below:
We work with communities to spread knowledge and make them aware about differentiating between potable and unsafe water. One simple word to remember would be C A T S which, expanded, would mean:
C- Clean and Clear.
A- Alkaline - a bit say pH = 7.5,
T- Tasty- not objectionable, odour free, etc.
S- Sterile- using Chlorine, UV, etc.
People are used to CATS for car theft protection and we can use similar jargon to educate them about water.
Muhammad Mukhtar Alam, Centre for Ecological Audit, Social Inclusion and Government, Delhi
The Centre for Ecological Audit, Social Inclusion and Government is working on ecologically safe practices of water storage, supply and treatments systems and through leading the Movement for Transforming Ecologically Hostile Habitats http://transitionurbanindia.ning.com, we are promoting preparations for the end of petro-modern age. We call for ecological audit of the entire systems, processes and services in the urban areas considering the reality of exhaustion of mine-based resources that we may witness sooner than later.
I recall from my childhood when water was stored in pitchers and drawn from the wells. Even now, these wells provide cool water in summer and warm water in winter in many villages. Water pumps were introduced in the 1970s. My grandfather lost his life to cholera and now I hear that the water level has fallen in several villages and lot of fish varieties have become hard to find. These include Moi, Ariathi, Hilsa and others.
In my village, the water from handpumps is not of good quality. We drilled another deep bore well but that also gives problems. Now, water quality has become an acute issue. Delhi recently had a demonstration on the issues related to water. We use a simple filter for drinking water and keep it in fridge. Water is collected in the morning and evening through using water pump. There are unauthorized colonies such as Meer Vihar and Prem Vihar and where people haggle over drinking water. Water from the ground water cannot be drunk.
Without undermining the initiative for making water secure and potable, we suggest making the supply system carbon-proof.
Alka Singh, AMRITA, Allahabad
A few days ago in a visioning workshop which was organized by Solution Exchange, we were discussing how sometimes people have more knowledge than scientists on local issues. Here I would like to apply same argument to water treatment. If we are discussing about water treatment it is important to understand
1. Types and levels of urban and rural contamination.
2. Natural and man made contamination
3. Devision of area (rural) on the basis of climatic zone
4. Important water cure (about rural water management and treatment)
Access to safe drinking water is very difficult in rural areas, especially for poor and powerless communities. They collect water from different sources like jharna, jheeri, rivers, and ponds. In urban areas, tap water or handpumps are the main source of drinking water. I would like to talk here about rural area water storage system and water treatment.
Over the last two decades water has become highly contaminated. People in rural areas are unaware of both chemical and biological contaminants. They continue to drink water from their traditional sources and treat it in the same old ways since they were used to only visible contaminants. While they were familiar with ways to remove floating impurities, they are not so familiar with invisible contaminants such as chemicals and bacteria. We cannot hold them responsible since urbanisation is one of the main reasons for the water contamination especially of rivers and groundwater.
An important aspect pertains to the Gangetic plains. In this area, either most of villages suffer from no access to water or access to water that is contaminated with harmful pathogens and chemicals. Many reports say that the first stratum of water from this region is heavily polluted. Experts feel this is mainly because of chemicals. People who are living in this region rely on this water for drinking and are unaware how to purify it. Only few people chlorinate water or use some other process. In the whole region, neither the state nor public private partnerships have focus on providing safe drinking water even though people are willing to pay for it. We feel it is important to provide affordable technology not large water treatment plants.
In Bihar , 13 districts have endemic fluorosis. In Nawada district people of the Kachariadih village drink water with a fluoride level of 8 mg per litre against the permissible limit of 1.5 mg/litre.
In other parts of the state such as Patna, Chhapra and Hazipur, I have seen most people get water from general handpumps and do not treat it before drinking other than filtering through cloth. Those from poorer sections are less aware than others about water treatment at the household level and even private companies do not target them. For example, the Kols, a schedule tribe in Allahabad district, Uttar Pradesh, source water from very polluted places. They lack awareness about suitable treatment methods and have forgotten their traditional ways of purifying water. As a result, they suffer from gastrointestinal diseases.
I remember as a child, we had strict norms about protecting the village pond and wells. People followed these norms and any violations were dealt with strictly.
Uday Pathak, Mahavir Vatsalya Aspatal, Patna*
Anybody has heard of a small 1.5 Volt solar circuit, electrodes dipped in a glass of water with a pinch of common salt. This causes release of chlorine gas causing disinfection. Distilled water can be made from solar collectors many designs are available and can be made at home. An old practice is to add a copper coin into the earthenware, 3 pot filter design. Copper ions are said to be toxic to bacteria.
*Offline Contribution
Vinod Joon, Indian Institute of Technology, Delhi*
I want to send you the link to youtube videos on Household Water Treatment : http://www.youtube.com/view_play_list?p=1EAAA9A06B496421
*Offline Contribution
Kalyan Paul, Pan Himalayan Grassroots Development Foundation, Almora*
We are involved with the largest community-managed drinking program in the state of Uttarakhand, through the introduction of an appropriate technology, in partnership with the concerned department of the government.
It would be nice to further details regarding the water filters and the way forward for us to incorporate this technology into our ongoing program. Would it be possible for someone to visit us and explain the modus operandi.
*Offline Contribution
R.Mohanasundar, Arghyam, Bangalore*
The best way to get rid of iron in the ground water is to aerate in and then filter it using a simple rapid sand filter. The dissolved iron in ground water will oxidize in Ferrous oxide in presence of Oxygen. Ground water does not contain oxygen in most of the cases. Hence the necessity to aerate water to precipitate iron out of ground water. Chemicals are not necessary to remove iron from ground water.
*Offline Contribution
Surendra Kumar Yadav, Institute of Environment Management, Vikram University , Ujjain*
There are many methods for making contaminated water drinkable. But in all settings and situations, the more viable and safe method is “filtration through 3-4 layers of clean (washed) cotton cloth followed by boiling”, before consumption.
*Offline Contribution
Nitya Jacob, United Nations Children’s Fund, New Delhi
I had visited the Dhan Foundation's project sites in the Ramnathpuram district of Tamil Nadu. People depend on surface water sources, called ooranis, for water. These capture and store rainwater but the soil is clayey and the water becomes extremely turbid. They fence the ooranis to keep out animals and there are strict rules about defecating nearby.
There are two methods for treating oorani water. One removes turbidity and the other removes bacteria. Local people rub seeds of the therran tree (Strychnus Nux vomica) inside the surface of a pot of turbid water and let it stand for a few minutes. The floating mud coagulates and the clear water can be decanted out. Strychnus Nux vomica produces Nux vomica and strychnine, alkaloids that are extremely poisonous but are also used as a medicine. According to the Eclectic Materia Medica, in small doses they form a bitter general tonic. In larger doses, they act stimulate and tone the body. In regular doses, they increase reflex action, enlarge lung capacity and raise the pulse rate. In higher doses, they can kill. The process involving the Strychnus seeds needs scientific validation to determine the water quality before and after treatment and establish its efficacy.
The Foundation also uses slow sand filters to remove both turbidity and bacteria. The contact person is A Gurunathan, the Executive Director of the Dhan Vayalagam Foundation.
Sunderrajan Krishnan, INREM Foundation, Anand*
With respect to low cost and sustainable domestic water filters, two good possibilities are:
1. Rice husk and clay based candle filters made in Tripura and used widely in the north east. This removes Iron to some extent and also has some bacterial removal ability. The cost of the candle is around Rs 80 which is replaceable.
2. Simple earthen clay made two compartment filters. One example is www.mitticool.in made from Rajkot district, Gujarat . The cost of this filter is around Rs 500 including filtration candles.
Both these are available commercially and within the price range to be used by rural households. One can think of enhancing such technologies to suit local requirements.
*Offline Contribution
Many thanks to all who contributed to this query!
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