A consolidated reply of experiences and examples shared by various members of the Solution Exchange Water Community
From Prakash Kumar, Stockholm Environment Institute-United Nations Children's Fund, New Delhi
Posted 25 January 2010
I work with the EcoSanRes Programme, SEI-UNICEF Collaboration, in New Delhi . SEI-UNICEF is seeking to identify the most relevant research/action research questions and issues concerning the current state of sanitation in India (rural, peri-urban and urban) to influence policy makers at the national and state levels.
After more than 60 years of Independence , sanitation still lags behind drinking water provision, and is not a high priority. A recent study by the Water and Sanitation Programme (WSP) suggests that developing countries spend 5-7 per cent of their gross domestic product (GDP) fighting water and sanitation borne diseases. However, their investment on water and sanitation is much smaller than this.
In India , the Total Sanitation Campaign (TSC) has made a remarkable headway across the country for improving the sanitation. The major issue is sustainability, and this has emerged through several studies on TSC. Sustainability concerns not only the consistent use of toilets by all members of households and children in schools, but increasing the coverage of sanitation.
Given this background, how do we address the issue of sustainable sanitation? What are the crucial areas that demand immediate attention? How can we influence policy makers for a thriving policy on sanitation? We are looking for as many responses as possible across a broad interest group from grassroot professionals, NGO functionaries, research institutions, academicians, health specialist, agriculturist, govt. organizations and other stakeholders on pressing issues in sanitation that requires comprehensive academic research as well as action research for evidence based advocacy to influence the policy. Please see the draft proposal at http://www.solutionexchange-un.net.in/environment/cr/res-25011001.pdf, PDF, 100 KB (as background document to mainstream sustainable sanitation within the TSC framework). We have proposed a three step process:
- Identification of most pressing questions/issues pertaining to sustainable sanitation
- Prioritizing questions/issues
- Seeking answers and suggestions for taking it forward.
Accordingly, we seek inputs from the Community members on the following:
- Are there India-specific research papers for evidence-based advocacy that links sanitation with health, livelihoods, education, agriculture and energy?
- What are the gaps in existing research?
- What are the priority areas for research?
Your responses will be very important and help in drawing up a road-map for presentation to the Department of Drinking Water Supply, Government of India. This will guide the mainstreaming of sustainable sanitation within the national sanitation framework to make TSC more vibrant, visible and lasting for a better India . DDWS, GOI has shown keen interest in adopting and integrating good practices in the ongoing sanitation program for long term sustainability of created sanitation facilities.
Responses were received, with thanks, from
1. Kashinath Vajpai, Prakriti-A Mountain Environment Group, Dehradoon (Response 1) (Response 2)
2. Ajit Sheshadri, Vigyan Vijay Foundation, New Delhi
3. P. K. Jha, Sulabh International Academy of Environmental Sanitation, New Delhi
4. Sacchidananda Mukherjee, National Institute of Public Finance and Policy, New Delhi
5. Bharti Patel, Svaraj, Bangalore
6. Latha Bhaskar, Ashoka Trust for the Environment, Trivandrum
7. Arunabha Majumder, Jadavpur University , Kolkata
8. Pradeep Mohapatra, Udayama, Bhubaneshwar
9. Rajiv K Raman, Consultant, Bangalore
10. Anil K Singh, Ministry of Defence, New Delhi
11. J. Geetha, Gramalaya, Tamil Nadu
12. Ramakrishna Nallathiga, Centre for Good Governance, Hyderabad
Further contributions are welcome!
Sanitation practitioners are increasingly concerned about sustainability. The Total Sanitation Campaign (TSC) has swept across the country and has helped push up the construction of sanitary hardware – household toilets, school toilets and community toilets. Several studies on TSC now point to the relatively low use of toilets, one of the issues concerning those working in the sector. Another challenge concerns locally-appropriate designs as the toilets available under TSC are of limited design. A third deals with soil and groundwater contamination from leach pits toilets. There is also the issue of the health impacts of improved sanitation and the effects on the livelihoods of people. Anecdotal evidence indicates villages that have been awarded the Nirmal Gram Puruskar (NGP) not maintained their open-defecation free (ODF) status, yet another concern.
These issues indicate new areas of research. These can be inter-disciplinary, covering livelihoods, economic benefits, health benefits, time savings, etc. The studies can examine the following indicators:
- Alternate institutional and implementation strategy for TSC that will facilitate community involvement and present locally-appropriate technical choices in keeping with the local geomorphology and climatic conditions
- What are the options to integrate TSC with other developmental programmes in order to reduce the efforts, resources, and provide better coverage and sustainability
- Promoting the commercial use of excreta and urine with attendant monetary and health benefits
- Reorienting existing strategies to serve different geographical regions that is more suitable for a country as diverse as India
- Measures for the adequate treatment of waste water in rural and urban areas. Neither panchayats nor municipalities accord high priority to this even though there are many Central and state level government programmes for waste water treatment.
- Decentralised waste water treatment systems as an alternative to the conventional centralized systems, as the latter are expensive and can optimally serve large communities. Decentralized schemes are more appropriate for smaller towns and villages
- Primary or secondary research on the links between health and sanitation
- Contamination of ground water and the soil by nitrates from leach pit toilets
- Reasons for the low use of toilets – household, community, school or anganwadis. A study of six villages in the Erode district of Tamil Nadu points to many factors that determine whether people use toilets.
- People’s perceptions the impact of sanitation on hygiene, as well as the environmental effects of open defecation
- In rural areas, what are the factors that contribute or, or inhibit, the construction and use of latrines. These can include their participation in local institutions and networks
- An approach to sensitizing the rural populace to the health and environmental impacts of open defecation and disposing human waste, so people construct latrines inside their premises
- The location of sanitation within integrated water management for a habitation as a whole. This includes supply optimization, demand management, equitable access and improved policy, regulatory and institutional frameworks for water supply and sanitation. Svaraj has studied waste management and water supply in Doddaballapur town, Karnataka, as part of their integrated urban water management programme.
- The composition of solid manure from ecosan toilets to inform a campaign for their wider use
- Conditions that dictate the use ecosan toilets instead of leach pit ones, such as water-logged areas, during floods, or in area where the soil is hard or rocky
- Factors that encourage communities to use ecosan toilets, such as the potential income from selling solid and liquid (urine) manure, usability in special conditions, etc., and how these can be integrated into campaign or publicity material. Gramalaya’s experiences in Trichy, Tamil Nadu are particularly relevant in this regard.
- Local ablution habits and toilet design, especially in the case of the two-pit pour flush toilet
- The urban-rural sanitation divide
- Reasons why NGP-awarded villages sometimes ‘slip back’ and people go back to defecating in the open
- User studies to modify the standard TSC-mandated toilet designs in different cultural, geographical and climatic areas
- An integrated approach to sanitation that includes effective solid and liquid waste management, health and hygiene management, conveyance and disposal of waste water streams, maintenance of water quality, safe drinking water and elimination of scavenging
- Setting clear, attainable goals on different timelines for rural India , their articulation to states, and state-level plans in keeping with their own local social and resource aspects
- Indicators for the ‘clean village’ stated in the TSC guidelines, as this is one of the points for assessing whether a village should get the NGP
- Toilets and groundwater contamination at different depths
- India-specific study on hygiene promotion and its effects on health and how these are affected by social conditioning
- Economic impacts of better sanitation, to provide the evidence for supporting further investments in sanitation
The studies can merge the scientific and social aspects while identifying the gaps in sanitation. Most studies so far have covered a small sample, either geographically or in terms of the number of people. To inform policy, these can be scaled up substantially so that their conclusions are more representative of the sanitation-related situation in a state or district.
Sanitation, disposal of solid and liquid waste (from Ajit Seshadri, The Vigyan Vijay Foundation, New Delhi )
Paper; by S Ramachandran and Ajit Seshadri. Vigyan Vijay Foundation; New Delhi; 2009;
Available at http://solutionexchange-un.net.in/environment/cr/res-25011001.doc (DOC; Size: 30 KB)
Discusses research priorities in sanitation, capacity building and links with agriculture, as well as the failure of current approaches
Factors Influencing Farmers’ Willingness to Protect Groundwater from Nonpoint Sources of Pollution in the Lower Bhavani River Basin, Tamil Nadu, India (from Sacchidananda Mukherjee, National Institute of Public Finance and Policy, New Delhi)
Paper; by Sacchinananda Mukherjee
Available at http://www.wepa-db.net/pdf/0810forum/paper26.pdf (PDF; Size: 55KBs)
Presents the results of a survey that shows farmers’ perceptions of risks related to groundwater nitrate pollution vary and mimic the actual groundwater nitrate situation
The State of Water , Sanitation and Solid waste Management in Doddaballapur (from Bharti Patel, Svaraj, Bangalore)
Paper; by Svaraj; Bangalore; 2009;
Available at http://solutionexchange-un.net.in/environment/cr/res-25011003.doc (DOC; Size: 1.4MB)
Describes Svaraj's work in managing the water supply as well as the solid and liquid waste of the town of Doddaballapur in Karnataka
From Rajiv K Raman, Consultant, Bangalore
Impact Assessment Of Nirmal Gram Puraskar Awarded Panchayats
Report; by TARU; UNICEF; New Delhi; August 2008;
Available at http://indiasanitationportal.org/ngp/ngpdata/NGP_IAFR220808.pdf) (PDF; Size: 3.5MB)
Discusses the reasons for slippages in sanitation coverage and use, especially among villages that have received the Nirmal Gram Puruskar
Study on Perception and Practice of Hygiene and impact on health in India
Study; by Kumar Jyoti Nath, Barenyo Chowdhury, Anish Sengupta; New Delhi; February 2010;
Available at
http://www.irc.nl/redir/content/download/147452/482756/file/Nath_SulabhInternational_Study%20and%20perception%20and%20practice%20of%20hygiene.doc) (DOC; Size: 100KB)
This research paper assesses the level of health awareness and hygienic practices and its health impacts in urban vis-à-vis rural areas in the five select states of Eastern India
Annual Report of the Indian Council of Medical Research
Book; by Indian Council of Medical Research; New Delhi; 2006-07;
Available at http://www.icmr.nic.in/annual/2006-07/hqrs_eng/ann_report.htm (PDF; Size: 45MB)
Describes the various communicable diseases spread by water and measures to combat them and can form the basis of further research
Studies from the Water and Sanitation Program Library
Books; by Water and Sanitation Programme;
Available at http://www.wsp.org/index.cfm?page=page_disp&pid=1507
The page has links to studies conducted by the Water and Sanitation Program on sanitation in South Asia
Burden of Inheritance
Book; by WaterAid India; New Delhi; October 2009;
Available at http://www.wateraid.org/documents/plugin_documents/burden_of_inheritance.pdf (PDF; Size: 1.1MB)
Analyses the incidence of manual scavenging and the work that different organizations are doing to eliminate it
Freedom of Mobility
Paper; by Maria Fernandes; WaterAid India; Bhopal; February 2010;
Available at
http://www.irc.nl/redir/content/download/147566/483417/file/Fernandes_WaterAid_India-Freedom%20of%20mobility.doc(DOC; Size: 100KB)
The paper describes WaterAid India's work on behaviour, misconceptions and the status on availability and accessibility to menstruation products
From Ramakrishna Nallathiga, Centre for Good Governance, Hyderabad
Guidance Notes on Provision of Services for the Urban Poor
Paper; by Water and Sanitation Program; New Delhi; August 2009;
Available at http://solutionexchange-un.net.in/environment/cr/res-25011004.pdf (PDF; Size: 1.8MB)
This publication identifies barriers to service delivery for the urban poor in India, especially in improving water supply and sanitation
Water Supply and Sanitation: A WHO-UNICEF Sponsored Study
Paper; by Planning Commission of India ; New Delhi ; October 2003;
Available at http://solutionexchange-un.net.in/environment/cr/res-25011005.pdf (PDF; Size:1MB)
The report highlights what we have so far achieved, what is still to be done and the areas meriting focused attention in water supply and sanitation in India
Solid Waste Management: A Guide to Competitive Contractive for Collection
Paper; by Lynn Scarlett and J.M. Sloan; August 1996;
Available at http://solutionexchange-un.net.in/environment/cr/res-25011008.pdf (PDF; Size: 100KB)
The paper discusses the various models of private sector participation in the collection and disposal of solid waste in the United States
The Welfare Effects of Slum Improvement Programs: The Case of Mumbai
Paper; by Akie Takeuchi, University of Maryland, Maureen Cropper, World Bank and Antonio Bento University of Maryland; World Bank Policy Research Working Paper 3852; February 2006;
Available at http://solutionexchange-un.net.in/environment/cr/res-25011006.pdf (PDF; Size: 150KB)
This paper evaluates the welfare effects of programmes, especially if current residents are made better off by improving housing in situ, or by relocating
Drinking Water and Sanitation Status in India
Paper; by WaterAid India ; 2006;
Available at http://solutionexchange-un.net.in/environment/cr/res-25011007.pdf (PDF; Size: 400KB)
This paper is an assessment of the drinking water and sanitation situation in terms of coverage and financing gaps keeping the targets of the MDGs
Recommended Contacts and Experts
S. Ramachandran, Vigyan Vijay Foundation, New Delhi (from from Ajit Seshadri, The Vigyan Vijay Foundation, New Delhi)
C-3 A/126 C, Janakpuri, New Delhi 110058; Tel: 91-9810248197; lipika.ahuja@vigyanvijay.org;http://vigyanvijay.org/project.htm
Has worked on sanitation-related issues and implemented several urban sanitation programmes in different cities
Recommended Organizations and Programmes
From Ajit Seshadri, The Vigyan Vijay Foundation, New Delhi
Total Sanitation Campaign (TSC), New Delhi
Department of Drinking Water Supply, Ministry of Rural Development, Government of India, 9th Floor, Paryavaran Bhawan, CGO Complex, Lodhi Road, New Delhi 110003; Tel: 91-11-24361043; Fax: 91-11-24364113; jstm@nic.in;http://www.ddws.nic.in/tsc_index.htm
Campaign has encouraged research into all aspects of sanitation in rural areas to deal with problems of human waste, solid and liquid waste management and hygiene
The Vigyan Vijay Foundation, New Delhi
C-3 A/126 C, Janakpuri, New Delhi 110058; Tel: 91-9810248197; lipika.ahuja@vigyanvijay.org;http://vigyanvijay.org/project.htm
Has implemented several urban sanitation programmes and conducted research on how to re-orient existing strategies for different geographical regions
Society for Community Organization and Peoples Education (SCOPE), Tamil Nadu
P/17, 6th Cross, Ahmed Colony, Ramalinganagar, Tiruchirapalli 620003, Tamil Nadu; Tel: 91-431-2774144; scopeagency86@rediffmail.com, scopeagency86@sify.com;
Has researched solid and liquid waste management, sanitation, health and hygiene issues among disadvantaged communities in Tamil Nadu
Svaraj, Karnataka(from Bharti Patel, Svaraj, Bangalore)
95/2, 6th Main, 15th Cross, Malleswaram, Bangalore 560003, Karnataka; Tel: 91-80-23347491, 41281664; Fax: 91-80-23347504; svaraj.blr@svaraj.in www.svaraj.in
Svaraj works with community based organizations, individuals, public institutions and private bodies, to make the vital case for environment protection and just development
World Bank, New Delhi (from Arunabha Majumder, Jadavpur University , Kolkata)
70 Lodi Estate, New Delhi 110003; Tel: 91-11-24617241; Fax: 91-11-24619393; smozumder@worldbank.org; http://www.worldbank.org.in/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/COUNTRIES/
Source of financial assistance to developing countries, including India and has devolved participatory approaches for sanitation and waste management
From Rajiv K Raman, Consultant, Bangalore
United Nations Children's Fund, New Delhi
73 Lodhi Estate, New Delhi 110003; Tel: 91-11-24690401; Fax: 91-11-24627521; newdelhi@unicef.org; http://www.unicef.org/wes/
Worldwide, UNICEF works to improve drinking water supplies and sanitation in communities, and has conducted several studies on the topic
Centre for Water Resources Development and Management, Kerala
Kunnamangalam, Kozhikode 673571 , Kerala; Tel: 91-495-2357151; Fax: 91-495-2351808; ed@cwrdm.org; http://www.cwrdm.org/; Contact Jayakumar K.V.; Executive Director;. ed@cwrdm.org
CWRDM is a Centre of Excellence catering to the research and development demands in all spheres of water management and sanitation
Sulabh International Social Service Organization, New Delhi
Sulabh Gram, Mahavir Enclave Palam-Dabri Road, New Delhi 110045; Tel: 91-11-25031518, 25031519, 25057748, 25057749, 25032617; Fax: 91-11-25034014, 45521733; sulabh1@nde.bsnl.net.in; http://www.sulabhinternational.org/; Contact: P. K. Jha
Works across India on issues relating to sanitation and developed several low-cost technologies for the construction of leach pits
Water and Sanitation Program, New Delhi
55 Lodhi Estate, New Delhi 110003; Tel: 91-11-24690488; wsp@worldbank.org; http://wsp.org
The Water and Sanitation Program is a multi-donor partnership administered by the World Bank to support poor people in obtaining water and sanitation services
A 1/276, Safdarjung Enclave, New Delhi 110029; info@taru.org; http://www.taru.org
Has done extensive research on sanitation in India , which has contributed significantly towards the transformation of policy and practice in the country
WaterAid, New Delhi
Gate No 1, First Floor, Nursery School Building, C-3, Nelson Mandela Marg, Vasant Kunj, New Delhi 110070; Tel: 91-11-46084400; Fax: 91-11-46084411; wai@wateraid.org; http://www.wateraid.org/india/what_we_do/default.asp
Partnered with Gramalaya to organise the Global Hand Washing Day campaign across 257 schools in Tamil Nadu to create awareness about the health effects of hand washing
Arghyam, Karnataka (from J Geetha, Gramalaya, Tamil Nadu)
599, 12th Main, Indiranagar, HAL 2nd Stage, Bangalore 560008, Karnataka; Tel: 91-80-41698941; Fax: 91-80-41698943; info@arghyam.org; http://arghyam.org/
Arghyam is a funding agency, that supports strategic and sustainable efforts for basic water and sanitation and has conducted a state-wide survey of sanitation
Recommended Portals and Information Bases
India Water Portal, Arghyam, Karnataka (from J Geetha, Gramalaya, Tamil Nadu)
http://www.indiawaterportal.org/tt/rwh/; Contact Vijay Kumar; Tel: 91-80-41698941;
Provides information regarding the different sanitation techniques across the country and a list of institutions working on the issue
Kashinath Vajpai, Prakriti-A Mountain Environment Group, Dehradoon (response 1)
I would agree with the statement that, the current scenario of sanitation in India , cannot be rated a being very good. Among other important issues of livelihood, health and water, sanitation remained the last priority of the people in general.
I wish to share an example in this context, which may reveal upon various aspects related to; research, health-livelihood links, gaps and priority areas of an inclusive program.
During one of my recent visit to Madhya Pradesh, I had chance to interact with various functionaries those are working on a livelihood promotion and rural poverty elimination program in tribal districts. With the program team members, we also visited in few recently declared Nirmal Panchayats (received NGPs) and interacted with the people and elected representatives. The main purpose was to observe and understand the linkages between hygiene situation, health impact and livelihood opportunities, and access sustainability aspects in Total Sanitation Campaign (TSC) program.
From our interaction with various project functionaries, we observed that poor hygiene and sanitation largely affected the health of the poor and tribal people in the villages and in-turn the available options for various livelihood opportunities. During initial phase of the program, a set of participatory research initiatives revealed that, poor hygiene and sanitation situation largely affected the project achievements. Therefore, the management team at state level decided to orient and train every project team members on various policy, institutional and technical aspects of the TSC program. Further, it had been decided that, there should be initiatives towards close coordination among TSC and Livelihood project team members at each level for the success of the each other.
During our visit to a few Nirmal Panchayats, we found that the situation was not very encouraging as the sanitary facilities in about 40 percent cases were defunct or not in use. When we discussed the situation among people, they mentioned that it was unilateral initiative of few PRI functionaries to get Nirmal Gram Award. We analyzed that, the technical options adopted were not feasible to the area due to topographic, geological and water availability related reasons.
In conclusion, I would say that:
- There is a need to adopt an alternate institutional and implementation strategy to traditional TSC, in facilitating the community on most viable system and feasible technology options considering the geomorphology and climatic condition of the area.
- There is the need to integrate the TSC program with other developmental program, this will reduce the efforts, resources, and provide better scope in term of coverage and sustaining the efforts.
- There could possible efforts in facilitating community in the productive use of excreta and urine, which will help in economic and health benefits, e.g. chemical free farming.
- The research or studies in sanitation coverage should cover comprehensive issues like livelihood, economic gain, health benefits, time saving, etc. in place of only physical structure.
Ajit Sheshadri, Vigyan Vijay Foundation, New Delhi
Let me a give a background to the process we had evolved for finding response and appropriate solutions to Sanitation and the disposal issues of all waste, be it be liquid and solid. These issues required to be addressed holistically.
I have consulted with our NGO’s ( The Vigyan Vijay Foundation- www.vigyanvijay.org ) mentor Professor S. Ramachandran who is our Founder Member and Vice-President for Sustainability Concerns and in particular to the query/ concerns as received from Prakash Kumar of SEI, on implementation of Rural/peri-urban and urban sanitation programs in India.
These answers/feed-back mainly pertain to questions on Implementation (and Reorientation) of Sanitation Programs in India although we are qualified to discuss drinking water supply initiatives too, if needed.
First of all, we appreciate the initiative to reorient the existing strategies to serve different geographical regions as a single solution (i.e., pour-flush twin-pit in practice now) is not appropriate in a large country like India . Such a reorientation is not only necessary but also overdue, in our opinion.
The theme paper presented now over the Net covers the reasons fairly well and so we will not repeat any part of it and request all readers to appreciate the brevity in this Report and read it along with the Theme Paper. You can see the full paper at http://solutionexchange-un.net.in/environment/cr/res-25011001.doc (Word, 50 Kb)
P. K. Jha, Sulabh International Academy of Environmental Sanitation, New Delhi
Sanitation coverage most of the time is a misnomer. In fact, for most of the people as well as local governments, it practically implies only coverage of house-hold toilet construction.
When we talk about sanitation coverage, it should equally cover adequate treatment of waste water of the community/ villages/ towns. Unfortunately, treatment of waste water is still not a felt need for most of the local bodies in rural and urban areas. We have several programmes/ schemes (at the Centre and state levels) providing financial support for sanitation in rural and urban areas, but there is no such programme for waste water treatment. Some research can pinpoint the gaps here.
It is accepted fact that centralised waste water treatment system is not affordable for a developing country like India and only decentralised system is the viable option to overcome the problem. It needs political will and support from all the stakeholders to tackle the problem.
There may already be several research papers on linkage of health and sanitation. In fact it is not a new idea. But the real data showing such linkage for a particular community can be obtained only when environmental sanitation is properly addressed in that community. This can be another topic for either primary or secondary research.
Sacchidananda Mukherjee, National Institute of Public Finance and Policy, New Delhi
I would like to share my experience of working across six villages in the lower Bhavani River Basin (during my doctoral field work) in Erode District, Tamil Nadu. My basic objective was to capture/understand the factors which influence farmers' willingness to adopt Best Management Practices (BMPs) with respect to human waste management to protect groundwater from nonpoint sources of pollution.
I found that on an average, 34.4 per cent of the sample households (Sample size - 395 households spread across six villages) have latrines within their premises, which varies significantly across the villages – minimum 13.6 per cent to maximum 64.1 per cent. It has also been observed that households having latrine within their premises also go for open defecation, as for example in one village only 13.6 per cent of the sample households have latrines and only one-third of those households with latrines use their facilities.
On an average 68.9 per cent of the sample households defecates openly, which varies from minimum 39.1 per cent to maximum 86.7 per cent. Farmers’ understanding about open defecation and groundwater pollution are poor. On an average 30.4 per cent of the sample households believe that open defecation pollutes groundwater, which varies significantly across villages from nil to 58.8 per cent. Since most of the latrine constructed in our sample villages are pit latrine and sometimes it is connected to open drain, nitrate and bacteriological contamination of groundwater from human wastes cannot be ruled out even if households construct latrines within their premises.
On an average only 34.2 per cent of our sample households understand that unlined storage of human wastes pollutes groundwater, which varies significantly across villages from minimum 13.8 per cent to maximum 85.3 per cent. At present government programmes are running to support the villagers to construct proper latrines and toilet facilities within the premises. Some farmers have already availed of the support and constructed latrines and toilet facilities.
However, on an average only 48.4 per cent of our sample households who do not have access to latrine and toilet facilities within their premises are willing to avail of government support, which varies significantly across the villages from minimum 4.5 per cent to maximum 78.5 per cent. This shows that people’s perception about hygiene is inadequate and that they are unaware of environmental impacts of open defecation.
The results of binary choice Probit models also show that farmer’s age, education and per capita land holding positively influence their willingness to construct latrines. Farmers who believe that unlined storage of human waste pollutes groundwater are likely to construct latrines. The farmers' social network in the form of memberships in social-participatory institutions and sources of agriculture related consultations positively influence their willingness.
Farmers who believe that open defecation pollutes groundwater quality are also willing to avail of government support to construct proper latrines and toilet facilities within the house. Farmers from severely groundwater-polluted villages are willing to avail of government support, whereas farmers from moderately polluted villages are reluctant.
Therefore, the sensitisation of the rural population on health and environmental aspects of human waste disposal practices could encourage the farmers to construct latrines within their premises. The methodology of doing this could form the basis of further study.
Reference
Mukherjee S, 2008, Economics of Agricultural Nonpoint Source Water Pollution: A Case Study of Groundwater Nitrate Pollution in the Lower Bhavani River Basin , Tamil Nadu. Unpublished Ph.D. Thesis, Madras School of Economics, University of Madras , Chennai, Tamil Nadu.
Bharti Patel, Svaraj, Bangalore
Svaraj’s in-depth study on “The state of Water, sanitation and waste management in Doddaballapur Town” is to help identify and better understand the development of basic civic amenities for the citizens of Doddaballapur; the environment condition of the town and the aspirations of its citizens for a better, well-planned and inclusive town.
Based on the survey data analysis, discussions and observations made during the study and at meetings, the measures for accessibility, availability and affordability for water and sanitation; conservation, protection of water and water bodies as well as prevention of further exploitation of the nature resource is recognized. Given that there is 100 per cent dependency on ground water, no underground drainage and exponential growth in solid waste production, the town has little option but to consider and explore alternate source of water, protect existing water sources from pollution; consider various options for adequate sanitation; actively encourage economic and ethical practices of its waste management to meet the basic needs of all its citizens as well as visitors to the town.
This participatory research as part of our integrated urban water management programmed helped in raising awareness on the scale of the problem in the town and pointed towards possible solutions with citizens playing a proactive role on their rights and responsibilities for ensuring safe, adequate and sustainable water, sanitation and environment for all.
One of the key objectives of the programme is to Work towards the formation of ‘Integrated Water Management’ cellwithin the local municipality with specific delegated responsibility for policy, plans budget and implementation of program; An Interdepartmental government approach to decision-making, combining different authorities with responsibility for managing the water resource and environment and operation of the supply of basic amenities for citizens of Doddaballapur to include:
- Supply optimization, including assessments of surface and groundwater supplies, water balances and wastewater reuse.
- Demand management, water use efficiency technologies, and decentralized water management authority.
- Equitable access to water resources through participatory and transparent management, including support for effective water users association, involvement of marginalized groups, and consideration of gender issues.
- Improved policy, regulatory and institutional frameworks, such as the enforcement of government policies on drinking water and adequate sanitation for community, implementation of pollution regulations, water quality norms and standards.
The report concludes with key recommendations on water supply management vision, protecting and revitalising existing water sources (wells and tanks); Sanitation to include decentralised system as well as UGD, Eco-sanitation and treatment of waste; Environment and health awareness, issues of equity and planning and governance.
Svaraj will be happy to share our progress on this with the Water community and learn from other experiences. You can download the latest Svaraj report on the State of water sanitation and solid waste management in a peri-urban town – Doddabalapur - 45 Km from Bangalore in Karnataka at http://solutionexchange-un.net.in/environment/cr/res-25011003.doc(Word, 1.4 Mb)
Latha Bhaskar, Ashoka Trust for the Environment, Trivandrum
While replying to this query, I wish to share my recent thoughts after a visit to see the works of SCOPE in Thiruchirappally who are pioneers in eco-sanitation technology. I think adopting ecosan will resolve several issues in the water and sanitation sector.
Increasing the sanitation coverage, constructing toilets in all households will only aggravate our problem, with the present technology options for constructing latrines. The best example is Kerala state where the sanitation coverage is above 95%, with 100% water sources contaminated with e-coli bacteria! Do we need to replicate this?
While considering the ‘safe sanitation’ it is high time to redesign the technology options and ecosan is one of the best possible answers to this. The simple reason is that it use solid material like ash or saw dust to clean/contain the excreta and water is totally avoided inside the tank which totally prevents spreading of the pollutants around. The solid waste is easy to compost and no harmful bacteria can survive in the mix. The problem of contamination of water bodies can be totally stopped with this saying bye to e-coli. Urine too is diverted to a separate chamber and wash water is diverted to a soak pit. This technology can be developed more user friendly in time, with added use, as market technologies will take care of it. Ash/saw dust can find their place in market shelves along with other toiletries.
Ceramic closets – Indian and western models – can be purchased from the market with facilities to release the ashes after toilet use, pulling a lever. One such model developed by China was seen displayed at SCOPE and they have tried out several village-town and community models of ecosan toilets, at Thrichy. Another innovation seen was a urine banks, which collects urine from community toilets, etc., in tanker lorries to transport to agricultural fields where it is circulated through drip irrigation sets, which is a rich liquid manure for plants. Along with agricultural universities, they are further experimenting on these. The ecosan compost is an excellent compost, safe to handle without any pathogenic bacteria and adding urea etc in this mix, fortifying the quality is also tried on pilot basis. So ecosan resolve several problems and also helps to enrich the soil, is the perfect solution for current situation.
Advantages of ecosan are multitude as it helps to save water used for flushing, it is safe sanitation, it is the best option for water logged areas as well as water scarce areas and it serves to enrich the soil. The only problem in this connection which can outnumber all the other positive count is the mindset of people, who are not used to it and will have lot of apprehensions. But this too can be resolved through appropriate policy and strategies, campaigns to spread the message, model villages for ecosan, etc., will bring results.
The government, while considering the rural sanitation policy should consider this model seriously as it is perfect solution to current issues of sanitation. The Department of Drinking Water Supply and Sanitation should evaluate the possibilities more closely and recommend the same to TSC. Suitable incentives, promoting the use may be considered initially to spread the use of ecosan, adoption and propagation of this model through TSC. The idea of safe sanitation can be achieved through this. So safe sanitation should be dry pit technology now this is perhaps the best the solution to address next generation issues
Arunabha Majumder, Jadavpur University , Kolkata
The two-pit pour-flush toilet was developed through applied research in India . It was recommended by TAG, World Bank as an appropriate technology for rural sanitation. Every technology has advantages and disadvantages and this applies to the pour-flush toilet as well. The technology is based on a water-seal; so water is essential for flushing. The pour-flush toilet has certain limitations. It may not be suitable in desert areas or water scarce areas. In flood prone areas design of the toilet needs to be changed or modified.
The design of toilets depends on the habits of local people. Europeans and Americans use water for flushing but they mostly do not use water for ablution. Members of certain Indian tribes also do not use water for ablution but they cannot use water seal toilets. Our tribal population does not use toilet paper, so water seal toilets are unsuitable for them.
How can pour flush toilets be designed to suit to sections of the rural populace of the country and also local environmental conditions. Again, we have diluted the basic design and principle of pour-flush toilets. Why are squatting plates placed over leach pits? We must enforce construction of two pit-toilets. Pits without proper lining often leads to the collapse of the pit within a short time. There must be a safe distance between leach pits and water sources but this is often neglected.
Research and development is needed in different hydro- geological conditions on these topics.
Ventilated Improved Pit (VIP) toilets may be suitable if the users and beneficiaries do not use water for ablution as well as in water scarce areas. The other option may be double-vault compost toilets of the Vietnam model where urine is seperated, and ablution water (if used) is not allowed in the vault. The night soil gets composted in the vault and vaults are used alternately.
The eco-san toilet is also very good alternative. It has also restrictive use. To achieve sustainability in sanitation, we must emphasize area- specific and appropriate technology which will be suitable to local habits, be affordable, subsidized, usable in water scare conditions, usable in flood-prone situations, hilly areas, coastal belts, etc. In addition, the solid and liquid waste management component included in the Total Sanitation Campaign is yet receive momentum. This is yet another topic of research
Pradeep Mohapatra, Udayama, Bhubaneshwar
I am putting forward a few suggestions for research into the EcoSanRes Programme:
- Is water poverty and poverty of environment central to vulnerability acceleration to livelihoods resilience?
- Is there any gap in Urban verses Rural Sanitation: process, practice and policy and accountability?
- What are issues with the sanitation sector? It is money (cost and subsidy), mind sets, attitudes or behavior change?
- Is there enough happening with the Government’s Scheme and its effectiveness in relation to coverage and characteristics?
- What kind of strategy should the state/country adopt? What are strategies for integration and leverage from mainstream resources and change adoption?
- Are India and Orissa suffering from variability of climate? Does this have any relation to water, sanitation and waste management and environmental hazards?
- What kind of Capacity Building Workshops are required for developing strategic engagements for bringing together citizen action for public participation?
- What are the obstacles in implementing water sanitation quickly, qualitatively and quantitatively?
- What kind of Monitoring and Evaluation of Delivery of Services and Process will be carried to ensure satisfactory citizen action for ensuring rights, entitlements accountability and good governance
Rajiv K Raman, Consultant, Bangalore
I think the issue of sustainability needs to be viewed from multiple perspectives of the overall sanitation problem as hinted by Prakash in the query below. Statistics point to growing provision of rural household sanitation. Is the provision and use being sustained after the ODF-NGP (open defecation free-Nirmal Gram Puruskar) milestones? Studies like the one sponsored by UNICEF (http://indiasanitationportal.org/ngp/ngpdata/NGP_IAFR220808.pdf) indicate worrisome trends of slip backs. Is this a strategic issue or a mere technological one? One would think, more of the former!
While Ajit’s point on the experience with pour flush latrines in wetlands/coastal regions of Kerala is valid (I believe the CWRDM is carrying out a detailed study on water quality and sanitation, assisted by the Clean Kerala Mission), I would tend to agree with Arunabha that some of the technologies are valid and have been selected after applied research in the Indian context.
However, the decision at the local level “must emphasize area- specific and appropriate technology…” and this would mean that the panchayat and households are presented with options that suit their resource conditions and entail affordable investments. In the current milieu, most the panchayats/households are presented with only one technical option (not a problem of the TSC guidelines – these offer the flexibility, but do the districts/states have the wherewithal/intention to carry this forward?) nuanced by different super-structure designs and that does not address the sustainability (of technology/resource) issue.
How many appealing options does one see in the sanitation parks constructed in different states? How many districts have enough information of the costs in constructing suitable toilets in hard rock or shallow water table areas. Very few, so we have a problem even with information sharing. Also, with the current design of the TSC (the way incentives to gram panchayats or households are designed), what would a panchayat do to facilitate five poor households who are located in a swampy area? Ask them to use common toilets in another part of the habitation? Does that become a sustainable solution or a first step? Thus, there are also management issues.
Also, apart from the central issue of human excreta management that becomes the focus of programme managers, the allied components which are as important are as follows –
- Solid Waste Management
- Liquid Waste Management
- Conveyance and disposal of the waste streams plus maintenance of freshwater quality
- Health and hygiene management (especially women and children)
- Safe drinking water provision and use
- Anti-social practices like scavenging and unprotected worker environments when dealing with waste
These seem to be elements addressed by different parts of the sanitation, drinking water and health programme delivery systems. While national guidelines call for convergence and provide the flexibility to states in formulating detailed operational elements, one tends to feel that elements fail to converge in most cases at the basic level of gram panchayats or blocks in rural India . The water quality monitoring system, drinking water delivery system, sanitation systems, etc., does not seem to inform the village manager of the causal links between themselves!
I would think the core issue is about being clear on attainable goals at different timelines for rural India , an articulation of this in generic fashion and getting the states to articulate a more detailed version accounting for local social and resource aspects. Is this utopian? Seems so, but one hopes anyway. This needs local articulation as the nation provides too much diversity (in social and resource aspects) for this to be a national formulation.
For instance, the TSC guidelines set out a goal of “clean village”. This is also an indicator measured in the NGP assessment. But what defines that? Even allowing for a country as diverse as ours, can we have some basic indicators for this? Something stated and transparent? An improved articulation is visible in the National Urban Sanitation Policy, which articulates the need to eliminate fecal contamination through all points of the disposal chain – confinement, conveyance, treatment and disposal – and espouses the cities to plan for tackling the identified risks at each stage. I would believe that this sets out a more clear policy directive that what the TSC does. The urban policy statement has come out recently and, I am sure, is informed by the rural experience. But cannot the rural sanitation policy enunciation also move with the times? One wonders.
In response to the query asking for specific research studies, let me say the following:
India-specific research papers for evidence-based advocacy that links sanitation with health, livelihoods, education, agriculture and energy?
Most of the research that one is aware of consists of micro-studies (two or three gram panchayats) or have explored one or a subset of the prescribed “set of sanitation interventions”. While these are informative and possible advocacy tools, one would possibly feel more comfortable with studies that test similar hypotheses across differing situations. For instance, the UNICEF-assisted ICMR study (www.icmr.nic.in/annual/2006-07/.../other_communicable%20diseases.pdf; pp 29-30) indicated that both diarrhoeal morbidity and overall worm infestations from stool samples were reduced in ODF villages as compared to Non-ODF villages.
For low depth water sources, microbial contamination was found to be higher compared to relatively high depth water sources. Open wells were found to be more contaminated as compared to bore wells with hand pumps having similar depth which is due to poor sanitary conditions around the open wells…. The study showed that despite improved sanitary conditions in ODF villages, there is a a high Disability Adjusted Life Year (DALY) score (165) for thermotolerant coliforms as compared to low score (73) in NODF villages, a matter of concern.
Similarly, hygiene promotion and its impact on health is highlighted in lot of international studies. But I am yet to see India-specific studies that provide me with information on what each intervention would achieve, in an Indian context. Again, maybe this is not possible. A recent study by Sulabh (http://www.irc.nl/redir/content/download/147452/482756/file/Nath_SulabhInternational_Study%20and%20perception%20and%20practice%20of%20hygiene.doc) seems to say that “…Some basic socio-economic factors like religion, education and level of economic status seem to play a pivotal role in conditioning the perception and practice of hygiene…. Perceptions of the community on health and hygiene issues reportedly have a strong influence on hygiene practices and both together along with provision of sanitation facilities have a significant impact on reducing the burden of communicable diseases like cholera, diarrhea, typhoid, hepatitis, etc….” However, the practitioner’s or advocacy agent’s anticipation of a magic bullet for this issue is still missing. In fact, a basket of measures is required, moving us back to the question of how we can ensure this without losing focus and pushing one of a whole set of required interventions.
Following on from the studies in South-East Asia, the Water and Sanitation Programme is assisting a series of studies in South Asia (including India ) and Africa on the Economics of Sanitation (http://www.wsp.org/index.cfm?page=page_disp&pid=20314). As the Asian countries have advanced economically, sanitation coverage has also increased.
However, the numbers of unserved households are still significant. Few governments and households identify poor sanitation as an impediment to economic growth. This series (in different countries) of studies examines the major health, water, environmental, tourism and other welfare impacts associated with poor sanitation. By examining the economic impacts of poor sanitation, and the potential gains from improved sanitation, these studies attempt to provide important evidence to support further investments in sanitation.
As far as I know, the study consists of two modules – an economic modeling exercise based on secondary data and a primary study that seeks to estimate some of the numeric necessary for understanding the impacts on ground. The Indian study is reported to be in progress and one should be seeing something like a draft output, hopefully by June. You could get in touch with WSP-SA, New Delhi for more details.
Two other areas that seem to have produced some tangible research are:
Issue of manual scavenging in India : The Water Aid report (http://www.wateraid.org/documents/plugin_documents/burden_of_inheritance.pdf). The report – Burden of Inheritance – tries to seek answers to the question of why the practice continues. The report has first explored the question: why are people continuing in this occupation despite availability of other dignified livelihood sources? Why is manual scavenging in practice in towns and cities where other cleaner options for survival exist? When there are feasible and viable technological alternatives to dry toilets, one of the drivers of this occupation, why does the practice continue?
Menstrual Hygiene Management: Again, a Water Aid study (http://www.irc.nl/redir/content/download/147566/483417/file/Fernandes_WaterAid_India-Freedom%20of%20mobility.doc) that carried out a survey on existing behaviour, misconceptions and the status on availability and accessibility to menstruation products, and responded modestly to the need, by developing menstrual hygiene communication tools and linked the demand to entrepreneurship. It raises issues like:
- Since menstrual health is not only about sanitary pads/napkins but also availability, disposal systems, what are the systemic interventions needed?
- Many things are needed e.g., knowledge, awareness, availability of products, disposal mechanisms.
One intervention is not enough. On a personal note, the experiences of women SHGs in Tamil Nadu who have worked on sanitary napkins points to similar nuances. The message seems to be “Think comprehensive and think with girls/women”.
Also, just a comment on the idea for GIS mapping mentioned in the proposal. It would be pertinent to remember that the scale of mapping is what could inform the programme. So while some level of zonation (especially for shallow water tables) might be feasible, issues like hard rock are more local. For instance, the Bangalore metro is facing problems owing to the fact that drill samples spaced 30 m apart used in the DPR differ from 15 m interval for drill samples at the time of actual construction!
That’s all for now. Just think, the urban situation space post-NUSP opens up this and more.
Anil K Singh, Ministry of Defence, New Delhi
Ist point: Are there India-specific research papers for evidence-based advocacy that link sanitation with health, livelihoods, education, agriculture and energy?
This point is so large which covers the major programmes of many ministries. The research activities done by many institutions are not directly linked to it but some institutes take one or more component to make their study different. But the question is how the institutional research identifies the problem and links it with the issues which can be helpful in advocacy and demand to influence the policy as well as to generate popular support. The institutes under Ministry of Health, Rural Development, Education, Agriculture and Non-Conventional Energy may be shortlisted firsthand. We should also link various sectors as follows:
- Sanitation and health on specific issues
- Sanitation and prevention of prevention of disease
- Sanitation and communication of disease likewise
Otherwise this broad subject will be linked superficially and not get wider acceptance.
If we want to link more than two sectors, it will generate lot of data which may not be required as per the objective. Like sanitation, agriculture and livelihoods are linked for getting useful research from available resources. The information may be available as a passing reference which may not be useful for advocacy. Let us select the important linkages amongst the sector as have been identified, finalise the possible interaction which may be statistically significant and then search the research papers/documents to find and analyse useful and relevant data.
Thereafter we can research globally on topics that can help us in the local context. Let us be sure what we want, whether a scientific study and scientific solution, as it will be an ongoing process. The studies carried out through case studies and interview schedule may generate immediate concerns but cannot suggest how to address them. I suggest this topic should be discussed in-house to ascertain the linkage with scientific data for advocacy so that it may cover at least 3-4 5-Year Plans of India .
2nd point: What are the gaps in existing research?
Scientific research and social research are done independently. The biggest gap is how to utilise social science data for solution through science or the scientific data to address the social issues. If we identify the linkages as I discussed above the identification, of the gaps would be easy. The ongoing water and sanitation programme is about 15 years old. It was started with wider consultation and has now attained youthfulness.
Experience reveals that it is becoming increasingly a government-driven programme and people do not own it. But we have mixed experiences. Generally people do not understand what sustainable sanitation is. Sanitation needs to be addressed professionally. These gaps are widening. Let us work on the existing gaps instead of identifying more. Across the population the important inputs/information are already available. The question is who will work and their capacities. People do not like discourses on problems by instead time-bound solutions from the agencies involved in the water and sanitation programme. The success and failure of the programme in India is also a learning experience which may throw some light on the gaps in existing research. The research available in private sector or with pharmaceutical companies has not been tapped either.
3rd point: What are the priority areas?
This is very vague sentence. I have dealt with research priorities to fill the gaps in advocacy in the first point. Long term sustainability issues related to water and sanitation for rural India need wider consultation with a focus on state governments to create the institutions on the model of Government of Gujarat with nice backup and support by all the wings of the Government.
I also pose a question why not continue with open defecation?
Tatti per Matti is the best ecological solution and also climate friendly. There is still a large percentage of people who defecate in the open, even though 2012 is fast approaching. Even after many global declarations, protocols and nice policies, open defecation is widely practiced in South Asia . Research is also on to whether toilets contribute to climate change. The solutions and the problems now have different dimensions.
I think time has come to accept the reality and provide the best in timeframe otherwise sermons and nice words are not going to be heard by anybody.
J. Geetha, Gramalaya, Tamil Nadu
A consultation was organised by the Arghyam Trust on 9th September, 2009, in Bangalore , to share civil society experiences regarding sustainable sanitation with the Planning Commission. The Planning Commission was represented at the event by Dr. Mihir Shah. The focus of the consultation was largely on rural sanitation.
Bases on the discussions and inputs from the presentations of the participants, a general consensus was built, based on which specific recommendations were made to the Planning Commission. For more information, please log onto http://www.indiawaterportal.org/post/7955.
Best toilet options as experienced by Gramalaya
- Toilet attached bathroom with leach-pit - Giving privacy for women and girls during menstrual period, water facilities for hand washing, clothes washing and for bathing.
- Eco-san is suitable for difficult areas where there is water logging, coastal regions, and rocky terrains. There has been a good response in these areas by the people as these are environment friendly and people cannot make the leach-pit low-cost models. People have also realized that there is no need for frequent cleaning of septic tanks, no foul smell, no pollution of water sources.
- Direct flush out toilet with gooseneck models are suitable for localities where there is a space constraint and people are unable to invest more money for toilet construction.
Accessible, affordable and acceptable toilets
- Different toilet options are provided ranging from zero budget (home-made latrines) to Rs.9,000 compost toilets.
- Good response for toilets with bathroom facilities
- Toilets with temporary superstructures to reduce the construction cost
- For toilets with permanent superstructures using bricks, cement hollow blocks, loan facilities are arranged either through banks or revolving fund through women self-help groups.
Kashinath Vajpai, Prakriti-A Mountain Environment Group, Dehradoon (response 2)
What Geetha in her posting has mentioned about advocacy, is very valid. However, I wish to add an important point over here that, such ‘advocacy initiatives’ should be led by the organizations those have valid and adequate experience, to influence the policy. Here, I would like to highlight the issues of ‘experienced’ organization. There are instances in ‘watsan’ sector, where it has been observed that organizations without valid experience and people in sanitation sector are jumping into in the race of leading the scene. This has its own negative implications for sure. Also, such feeble initiatives have lead to poor credibility of other experienced organizations among policy makers. This is not a good trend.
There are evidences where ‘unempirical’ research in sanitation and ‘inappropriate’ implementation support provided by organizations had lead to miserable results. This can be considered among one of the gap in sanitation sector in India , which is no-good.
Therefore, in my view, apart from various points discussed on technical and social mobilization aspects, there is an urgent need to look in to the issues of credible organizations leading the consensus in advocating for ‘sustainable sanitation’ and ideas on other sanitation approaches to the government.
Ramakrishna Nallathiga, Centre for Good Governance, Hyderabad
There is little research based (action/ theory/ policy) in the subject sanitation. This contrasts with a plenty of research in water sector on different lines/ themes.
I only offer few documents relevant to the sector development, which are more of best practices/ experiences/ guidelines kind of documents. Jadavpur univeristy and IPHE (Kolkata) could have done some work documented. Please find the documents at http://solutionexchange-un.net.in/environment/cr/res-25011004.pdf;
http://solutionexchange-un.net.in/environment/cr/res-25011005.pdf
http://solutionexchange-un.net.in/environment/cr/res-25011006.pdf
http://solutionexchange-un.net.in/environment/cr/res-25011007.pdf
http://solutionexchange-un.net.in/environment/cr/res-25011008.pdf
Many thanks to all who contributed to this query!
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